Week 8 :

1. Week 8: Community Psychology and Organizations; & Future Directions in Community Psychology

2. Organizations • Whether it’s a company, a non-profit, or non-governmental organization (NGO), an organization is a system • Just like your body is a system with complex sub-systems with specific functions and feedback mechanisms that all have to work together to keep your body functioning, an organization is a system too • An organization is a set of interconnected people with specific tasks who have to work together to accomplish goals; just like in your body, if one part of this system breaks down, it can have wide-reaching effects (and then you’re in bed with the flu!)

3. Organizations (cont.) • An organization also reaches a state of equilibrium/homeostasis (balance); a disruption in the system (i.e., someone quits) throws off this balance, and the system has to readjust (just like your body’s task of trying to keep your blood sugar level) • Change in an organization is often necessary but difficult because it’s easier and less threatening to keep everything predictable; but, internal and external forces often require change and adaptation • Whenever possible, employees should have a say in the changes that take place and they should have an opportunity to brainstorm solutions to problems • Employee empowerment leads to greater efficiency and satisfaction

4. Organizational Behavior and Community Psychology • Organizational behavior is a field of study that is similar to community psychology because they are both interested in organizations as systems, where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts • Organizational behavior is different from community psychology, however, because organizational behavior is more interested in the financial success of the organization, while community psychology is interested in the well-being and sense of community among the employees • The two issues (profits and employee satisfaction) are certainly not mutually exclusive, though; long-term company growth and profitability is commensurate with low turnover and more satisfied, committed employees, who work harder and have positive interactions with customers, who, in turn, become loyal customers because the company is reliable and generates a positive experience for them

5. Work-Related Issues • Work at any job or organization can be stressful for a variety of reasons: • Conflict or difficulty with one’s boss or coworkers • Too much or too little work to do; bored vs. overworked • The task difficulty either exceeds one’s level of ability/training or the task difficulty level is too easy for one’s ability/training • The hours are too long • The work is too repetitive • The job is physically demanding • The job is emotionally demanding (e.g., a therapist or a call-center employee who manages angry customers) • There’s a poor fit between the employee’s abilities/strengths and the job demands

6. Reasons for stress at work (cont.) • There is too little positive reinforcement and/or too much punishment or attention to rules, mistakes, or failures • There are mixed messages or conflicting goals (e.g., one manager tells you to focus on completing X, while another manager tells you to focus on completing Y) • The goals of the company or tasks conflict with personal values (e.g., a lawyer who has to defend a tobacco company and her mother died from lung cancer) • The employee doesn’t feel valued or respected at the organization • Have you had any of these experiences?

7. Burnout • Burnout: sense of disconnection, dissatisfaction, and pessimism regarding work-related others (coworkers and customers), fatigue/exhaustion, and hopelessness about one’s efforts and accomplishments at work • Causes of burnout may include: excessive workload, lack of control (e.g., no say in decision making), lack of reward or recognition, lack of sense of community or support, lack of fairness or reciprocity, and disconnect between personal values and the values or goals of the organization or environment

8. Ameliorating burnout and work-related stress: • Social support from coworkers • Consideration from the employer about what is making the employee unhappy and what might be changed about the employee’s position or how the employee might get more positive reinforcement • Opportunity for advancement (e.g., company offers to assist employee in pursuing a Master’s degree, which would allow for promotion to a new position) • Built-in stress reduction at the job site, e.g., yoga classes at work, encouragement of meditation, support groups, opportunities for workers to voice their opinions (esp. during times of change), use of professional massage therapists, use of outdoor green spaces, etc.

9. Career Satisfaction • Individuals tend to be satisfied at a job or organization when it is commensurate with three areas: Abilities, Values, and Interests • Is the job something you’re good at (abilities), something that genuinely interests you, and something that rewards you in a way that is consistent with your values (e.g., if you value money, does it pay well? If you value helping others, or being creative does it fulfill this need?)

10. Team-Building / Team Development • Many organizations use teams that work together to implement various components of multi-layered tasks and to draw on individual employee’s strengths • Team building involves having the group tackle a problem/task together, make decisions, and collaborate toward a goal • In the case of a large organization, perhaps the employees don’t feel a sense of connection with the overall company, but they do feel a sense of connection with their team • Sometimes organizations will have team-building retreats to promote trust and cohesiveness; it’s ironic to me that they sometimes choose activities like Paintball, which is more in line with aggression, competition and individualism than team-building • True team-building activities involve working together to create something or solve a problem together; volunteering for Habitat for Humanity would be a great example of a team-building retreat activity for a department or team

11. Leadership • Various researchers have categorized different leadership styles: • Task-focused vs. interpersonally focused • Democratic/participatory vs. autocratic/directive • Transactional, transformational, vs. laissez-faire • Leadership is also an ever-evolving process that is highly dependent on the type of organization and its goals, as well as the employees • e.g., some employees need more structure and feedback, while others need more freedom and inspiration • Good leaders listen to their employees, inspire loyalty, have a vision for the future, can delegate, and can be flexible when change is needed; they also mentor others so that the next generation can lead one day

12. Organizational Culture • Community Psychologists’ recommendations for organizations are often contrary to corporate America, which emphasizes competition and individualism • Organizations that have an open culture with more psychological sense of community and more respect for diversity tend to also be smaller organizations with social norms of working as a team, providing social support to one another, and attention to and encouragement of employees’ strengths and professional growth • Similar to the research on self-fulfilling prophecy among school children, when employers promote positive expectations for their employees, the employees tend to live up to these positive expectations

13. Organizational Culture Positive Case Example: Zappos • This company has actively created a unique, fun work culture, with a strong sense of community and a “graduation” when employees complete the training program • The physical office atmosphere is fun, and there is free food and areas for employees to take naps and play games • The CEO sits at a cubicle, just like everyone else • Group activities outside of work (e.g., bowling with co-workers) are encouraged • Watch this interesting news clip on Zappos: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFyW5s_7ZWc&feature=related

14. Networking & Consultation(revisit Chapter 5) • Networks: Social connections or alliances between communities and the individuals within communities for the purpose of sharing ideas and resources for common goals • Umbrella Organizations (i.e., the United Way): large-scale organizations that provide resources and connections with smaller organizations to minimize redundancy and maximize outreach

15. Networking & Consultation (cont.) • Consultation: Involves an experienced professional (consultant) who can perform tasks such as a needs assessment, creating a plan of action, bringing together stakeholders and members of the community, and performing an outcomes assessment • Usually hired by the consultee (e.g., head of an organization) to bring about positive changes for the clients (e.g., the population in need) • For example, the ASPCA might hire a consultant to help them better run and publicize their organization (consultee), which helps animals and pet adopters (clients) • Making changes to any system creates stress; the most important skill a consultant can have, esp. early on, is to be a good listener! Make sure you hear everyone’s concerns, you get all sides of the issue, and you reflect what you’ve heard to show you understand and empathize.

16. Program Implementation • Carrying out a program includes assessing: • 1. Fidelity: to what extent the implementation matches the original design of the program • 2. Dosage/intensity: how often the program is presented and how much is presented • 3. Quality: how well the components of the program are presented/implemented • 4. Participant responsiveness: how much participants are engaged in the program • 5. Program differentiation: how much the program differs from existing programs

17. Program Implementation (cont.) • 6. Monitoring of control/comparison conditions: if the program is measuring outcomes in a control group for research purposes, is this a true control group, or have they been exposed to any interventions? • 7. Program reach: did the program enroll most or all of its target population? Do people in the community know about the program? • 8. Adaptation: to what extent the program is modified to fit a specific setting (just as there is person-environment fit, there must be program-environment fit; also, the longer a program exists, the more the setting will adapt to the program; it’s reciprocal) • Aside from implementation, programs need to be sustainable: permanent fixtures in the community with ongoing funding

18. Review of Program Assessment & Outcome Evaluation • Program assessment should be ongoing and built into the program • Step 1: Identify goals and desired outcomes (keep goals as concrete and measurable as possible); identify target group/population • Step 2: Process evaluation: monitor ongoing progress, assess budgeting, meet with stakeholders, and decide whether your path requires course-corrections • Ask who, what, and when questions, i.e., “Who was supposed to do what with whom and when was it supposed to be done?” • Do we have enough staff and are they trained well? • Are they implementing the program adequately? • Are they reaching the target group/population? • Are we meeting our benchmarks/deadlines?

19. Program Assessment & Outcome Evaluation (cont.) • Step 3: Outcome Evaluation: assessment of the immediate or short-term effects of a program; compare results to goals in Step 1 • i.e., pretest scores compared to posttest scores, or assessment of actual behaviors or outcomes whenever possible (self-reported condom use; self-reported smoking behavior; number of fights in school) • Interviews and questionnaires are also often used • Step 4: Impact Evaluation: assessment of long-term effects of a program • i.e., actual pregnancy rates, number of underage drinking arrests, or new rates of HIV infection over 1-5 yrs • Archival data may be used for impact evaluation, such as public data on school dropout rates, drunk driving accidents, etc.

20. Program Assessment & Outcome Evaluation (cont.) • Efficacy refers to how well the program works under optimal conditions (e.g., carefully controlled setting), while effectiveness is how well the program works in the “real world” • What about when programs fail? • Two major reasons for program failure are: • 1) Theory failure: the premise behind the program is flawed • 2) Implementation failure: the program was not executed according to plan • For example, DARE programs are based on the premise that education about the harmful effects of drug use and teaching them to combat peer pressure to use drugs would result in decreased drug use, but the program doesn’t work • Does this surprise you?

21. Eyes on the HorizonFuture Directions in Community Psychology: Getting away from the trees and back to the forest • Going global: Much of the latest research in Community Psychology is from countries other than the U.S. • Keeping up with demographic and technological trends: Community Psychologists must have a finger on the pulse of changes in world (such as an increasing elderly population, worldwide) and must consider how the world is getting smaller through the use of technology • Continued emphasis on empirically-based solutions and programs, and not reinventing the wheel (e.g., thorough research on what has already been done, what has worked, and what has failed)

22. Future Directions (cont.) • Continued emphasis on active participation and empowerment; e.g., helping neighborhoods and communities to be actively involved in programs; this strategy has spread to other fields, such as public health and social work • Power, corruption, and greed can foster policies and practices that keep individuals poor, undereducated, and feeling hopeless; Community Psychologists have to show them that there is power in numbers, every person is valuable, and every person can make a difference • Think about the communities to which you belong and the ones to which you’d like to belong; how can you make a difference in these communities? • How can you apply what you’ve learned in this class toward making the world a healthier, safer, more prosperous place?

23. Good Luck on Your Presentations!