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Islamic Civilization: Pt.3 End of Umayyad Caliphate -- February 6-8; 13. The Umayyad Caliphate. Prophet Muhammad, 622–632 Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750. End of the Umayyads.
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Islamic Civilization: Pt.3 End of Umayyad Caliphate -- February 6-8; 13
The Umayyad Caliphate Prophet Muhammad, 622–632Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
End of the Umayyads By the end of the Umayyad dynasty, the privilege that had accrued to Arabs in their ‘conquest society’ from its early days – no longer existed [end of Pt 2]. . . Islam itself ‘social institution’ embedded in society – no longer exclusive to ‘Arabs’ Differential taxation, long a marker of ‘who was Muslim’ – no longer in effect; everyone paid taxes!
End of the Umayyads Association of ‘conquest’ and ‘Arab’ no longer valid – series of defeats beginning with Constantinople (717-18) weakened image of the Umayyads both internally and externally “The Umayyads were unjust and ungodly” [Hoyland] – note continuing association of political/military success or failure with ‘God’ and ‘God’s will’
End of the Umayyads Significant defeats:[Hoyland] Constantinople Europe (France – ‘the Franks’) North Africa (the Berbers – ‘Moors’) Transoxania (the Turks) [will return to Europe and North Africa later in lecture]
Defeat at Constantinople Constantinople campaign 717-18: [see lecture Jan.. 27 for account of earlier efforts] Caliph Suleiman: undertook what predecessors failed to accomplish – capture of Constantinople Investment enormous: 5000 ships (with troops, provisions); 12000 workers; 6000 camels (loaded with weapons); 6000 mules (to transport provisions); 3000 ‘volunteers’ – hoping for “divine credit and earthly spoils”; Arab financiers ‘loaning’ mounts – awaiting payment from spoils
Defeat at Constantinople Complete Disaster! [Hoyland gives details] Campaign in hands Caliph’s brother, Maslama Was convincingly deceived by Leo, Byzantine usurper of throne: instead of ‘handing over city’ to him, Leo took advantage of situation to fortify Constantinople, acquire more European assistance, provisions etc Also practiced ‘scorched earth’ policy: effectively prevented back-up troops, supplies from reaching Maslama as he tried to lay seige to city
Defeat at Constantinople Leo well informed as to Arab movements: intercepted ships bringing supplies, used ‘fire-throwing’ equipment successfully Additional efforts to get supplies to troops by Suleiman failed: ordered end to campaign Those returning by sea: caught in storm, most lost, others stranded Those returning by land: no supplies, no animals – already starving; families were requested to go and ‘rescue’ relatives among the returnees!
Depiction Siege ofConstantinople 717-18 (from 14th C. Chronicle) Greek ‘Fire-Fighting’Equipment inAction (no date)
Defeat at Constantinople Impact of losses: incalculable Financial, human – would take years to recover Restricted efforts of ‘conquest’ during later years of Umayyad rule Gave enormous impetus to Byzantines AND to those recently brought under Umayyad rule who soon began to challenge what was seen as ‘weak’ state
Revolt in Central Asia Transoxania (Central Asia): One of these areas ‘recently’ pacified by Arabs under Caliph Walid (705-15) Local commander feared for his position upon Walid’s death, as Suleiman became Caliph Attempted mutiny: troops refused – killed him But Suleiman focused on Constantinople (above) Disastrous failure made sucessor Umar II wary of extending miliatry into Transoxania
Revolt in Central Asia Revolt: Some local nobles saw moment as advantageous to regain autonomy e.g. ‘Lord of Samarkand, King of Sogdia’ – Hoyland quotes letter sent to Chinese Emperor seeking military support [see also photo of painting showing local nobleman in Chinese attire]
Transoxiana & Khursasan 8th century Area of major Revolts
Revolt in Central Asia Revolt short-lived:| This revolt ended by Arabs 722 But gave rise to others across region By 730: only Samarkand, a few other fortresses left in Arab hands
Revolt in Central Asia Last Effort to re-establish control: Finally Governor installed who had spent most of his adult life in this region (as distinct from others who had been sent in from the West) Knew local culture, politics: sensitive to effect of previous generation of warfare, loss of life Adopted ‘conciliatory’ approach: extended Umayyad rule by at least a decade In the end: too late – eastern challenges won
Provocations Generalized Opposition: Provoked by growing issue of ‘taxation’ and conversion Organized around two opposing ‘paths’: Kharijite and Shia
Provocations: taxation Taxation and Islam: Hoyland gives example of ‘missionary activities’ under Umar II: Africa (‘Ifriqiyya’), Mauritania, Khurasia In last case: preacher active in region of Samarkand, declaring that converts would be freed from poll tax “and the people flocked to him”: new mosques built, instruction given in how to pray, recite Qur’an in Persian etc
Provocations: taxation But. . . When local governor realized how much this mass of conversions was costing in tax revenue – ordered that the poll tax be re-imposed While many then ‘apostatized’ – others remained Muslim but sought out means to resist Umayyad government
Provocations: Kharijites 1. Kharijites [from kharaja – to leave]: Opposing very essence of Umayyad Caliphate – namely its dynastic base Believed in leadership by the ‘first among equals’ (irrespective of family or clan) Yemen: one rebel declared himself Caliph in 746 but Umayyads still strong enough to quash him
Provocations: Kharijites North Africa: ‘rash of Kharijite uprisings’ 739-40 initially more successful Arab conquest relatively recent: centre of Caliphate a long way away in Damascus Kharijite philosophy attractive, suited Berber culture Strong desire for autonomy (for political and economic reasons): Kharijites offered rallying point
Provocations: Kharijites August 740: Two converts (Berber, Byzantine African) led coordinated revolts region of Tangiers November: major confrontation ‘annihilating’ Arab force, killing local Arab leaders New governor (from Damascus): also unable to defeat Berbers – killed in battle
Provocations: Kharijites Berber Caliphate: Berber leader acclaimed as Caliph: defeated decisively another Arab force 741 Third governor: experienced General – orders were to ‘crush the insurrection’ Battle was fierce but this time Arabs prevailed ‘dream of unified Berber Caliphate’ shattered but region continued to move away from Damascus
Provocations: Kharijites Local Dynasties: North Africa characterized by numerous local dynasties emerging Some long-lasting, incorporating Berber culture One (Morocco): had own ‘holy family, used Berber version of Qur’an, maintained Berber dietary, magical practices
New Berber Kingdoms Hoyland: “This process culminated in the emergence of the two most powerful Berber kingdoms, the Almoravids (1062-1147) and the Almohads (1147-1248), who came closest to realizing the idea of a Berber Empire, at one point holding the entire African littoral from Benghazi to the Atlantic and the southern part of Spain” [to be cont.-- Bennison’s Almoravid and Almohad Empires]
Provocations: Shi’ites 2. Shi’ites: Believed that the ‘charisma’ necessary for leadership (literally) flowed through the blood line of Ali’s descendants Particularly popular in former Persian lands – Hoyland explains political as well as religious reasons (resonating with earlier Persian beliefs) Would latter take root as movement in North Africa [to be cont. – ‘The Fatimids’; lectures and video]
End of Umayyads Both Kharijites and Shi’ites seeking supporters across empire: Followings becoming larger during later Umayyad era In some areas, even minting their own coins ‘winning’ in terms of popular support vis-à-vis Umayyads
End of the Umayyads Hoyland: Summarizes material to argue that the only way to understand both creation of Arab Empire and speed with which it happened is to understand how and why many conquered people became involved in the ‘World of Conquest’
End of the Umayyads Family Histories: Comes to this conclusion by looking at family histories of ‘main actors’ – BOTH Arab and non-Arab In only three generations: whole social situation ad cultural orientation had changed beyond recognition So ‘process’ not unique (can be seen in other empires) but NOT with this rapidity!
End of the Umayyads So: why did it come to such an abrupt end c.750? Hoyland notes ‘natural barriers’, well-organized states lying beyond frontiers (eg. Franks in Europe, Chinese in East) Also: eventual shift in focus from notion/reality of jihad to one of building Islamic civilization
Abbasid Overthrow 750 Abbasid Revolution 750: Reflecting large variety different cultures now under ‘Arab’ rule Abbasid success in ‘sweeping away’ Syrian-Arabian (Umayyad) elite was voice of many peoples Iraq, Iran, Transoxania who wanted role in shaping that Islamic civilization Very much a political – as distinct from religious – revolution: impact felt across empire, not just Arab ‘heartland’
Revolution in the West Turning (back) to the West: In citing ‘revolts’ and ‘defeats’ challenging Umayyad power, Hoyland draws attention to: - North Africa (and the Berbers) - Andalusia (and the Franks)
Revolution in the West Arab Interest in North Africa (Ifriqiyya, Mauritania): [see lecture Feb. 3 Pt. II ‘Umayyad Empire’] Renewed under Abd al-Malik’s son, Walid – pushed conquest to Atlantic Ocean Capturing of Carthage and Tangiers critical to establishing power Became base for push into Europe itself
Revolution in the West Tariq ibn Ziyad [see earlier lecture for background story]: Berber ‘freedman’: commander Arab army in Tangiers 711: took advantage of internal dissension in Spain (between Goths, Spanish ruler) Led Arab army in successful conquest No clear sense of how accomplished: was not one ‘overwhelming military defeat’ of region
Revolution in the West “The Deceitful Peace”: Term used in one Christian source: referring to evidence suggesting some local rulers negotiated their surrender to the Arab army – as we have seen elsewhere [Hoyland details an example he explicitly compares with the Eastern conquests]
Revolution in the West ‘Battle of the Civilizations’: From base in south, Cordoba, pushed north into ‘Gaul’ (France) Some success until came up against army of Charles Martel ‘field’ between towns of Tours and Poitiers: Muslim forces defeated Western historians refer to battle as ‘determining world’s fate’
Revolution in the West [Hoyland] Historians spoke of Europe being saved from subjection to “Asiatics and Africans” (note terminology) Famous Edward Gibbons wrote that except for this Battle ‘the Qur’an might be being taught in the schools of Oxford’ – [it actually is -- but that’s another issue!]
End of the Umayyads Not the ‘end’ one might assume: Further attempts at northward expansion would probably have been forthcoming but for revolts in North Africa (above): forces sent from Cordoba to help quell
End of the Umayyads Then came Abbasid overthrow 746-50:
End of the Umayyads While Damascus remained centre Umayyad influence: new Abbasid rulers established Caliphate in the East -- Baghdad ‘Arab-ruled’ (Muslim) Spain in far West even further cut-off from central government Son [some say ‘cousin’] of defeated Umayyad family sought refuge in Cordoba
End of the Umayyads? Cordoba: Became ‘resurrected’ Umayyad Caliphate: competing western power major Umayyad civilization, under Berber (‘African’) leadership – shaped famous era in Spanish/Portuguese art and architecture ”
End of the Umayyads? Video Excerpt: “Al-Andalusia”
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