Gender Issues

1. Gender Issues Chapter 5

2. “….genetic variation is essential in all species. Instead of regarding variants in sexual behavior as abnormal or undesirable, we should see them as an affirmation of life’s vitality and infinite possibilities” -Bruce Bagemihl

3. Sex & Gender • Are sex and gender synonymous? • Sex: biological maleness and femaleness • Genetic sex and anatomical sex • Gender: encompasses the behaviors, socially constructed roles, and psychological attributes commonly associated with being male or female • Gender Assumptions: assumptions about how people are likely to behave based on their maleness or femaleness • Would it be difficult for you to interact with someone if you were unsure of their gender? Describe how you would feel. • Sexual Identity: the way one views him or her self as a male or female.

4. Gender Identity: How one psychologically perceives oneself as either male or female • Gender Role: A collection of attitudes and behaviors that a specific culture considers normal and appropriate for people of a particular sex (social script) • Think about the attitudes and behaviors of Inis Beag, Sambia, Managaia, Middle East, China, United States…

6. Stereotype– generalized idea of what a person is like based only on that person’s sex, race, religion, ethnic background, or similar category – doesn’t take individuality into account, e.g., assumes all women or all men are similar in important ways • e.g., men are aggressive, logical, unemotional, dominant, independent, athletic, competitive, competent – women are nonassertive, illogical, emotional, subordinate, warm and nurturing • Do you think these stereotypes are correct? • Is it reasonable to expect everyone to conform to the stereotype for his/her gender? • Which of these affect how you see others? • in recent years, there is a trend away from strict definitions of male or female behavior (more apparent in settings where people have more education)

7. Impact of gender-role expectations on sexuality • Note how the below expectations affect sexual interactions, and think about whether they facilitate or interfere with positive sexual interactions for yourself • women undersexed, men oversexed • men initiate, women receive • men as “sexperts” • men make the moves, women control • men are unemotional & strong • women are nurturing & supportive • Transcending gender roles: Androgyny • What are the benefits & drawbacks?

8. Five agents of socialization • Summarize for yourself the effect of each of the five agents below: • parental expectations • peers influence how child plays • school teachers and textbooks • television and gender-based stereotypes • religious training

9. How do we come to think of ourselves as either male or female?? • Biological processes that take place after conception and completed before birth • Social-learning theory, which looks to cultural influences during early childhood

10. Biological Process (Nature) Social-Learning (Nurture) Social and cultural models and influences during early development Interaction model – both nature & nurture • Chromosomal sex differences • Development of gonads • Production of hormones • Development of internal & external reproductive structures • Sex differentiation of the brain

11. Chromosomal Sex22 pairs of matched autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes….

12. A normal female ovum has 22 autosomes plus an X chromosome, a male, 22 as well plus either an X or Y chromosome • If ovum fertilized by a sperm carrying a Y chromosome = XY, a boy. If carrying X = XX, a girl • Two XX chromosomes are necessary for internal and external female structures to develop completely…If Y is present, male sexual and reproductive organs develop • SRY gene:(sex determining region Y) on the short arm of the Y chromosome, whichplays a crucial role in the development of the testes:male gonads inside scrotum that produce sperm & sex hormones • DSS gene: (dosage sensitive sex reversal) on the X chromosome, Ovaries: female gonads that produce ova and sex hormones

13. Gonadal Sex • Gonads: male and female sex glands • Same first weeks after conception • Differentiation begins at about 6 weeks • Once testes or ovaries develop, they release their own hormones…

14. Hormonal Sex • Critical factor in further sex differentiation, and genetic influence ceases • Ovaries produce: • Estrogens – estradiol, most important influence on female sex characteristics and help regulate menstrual cycle • Progestational Compounds: progesterone most important, regulates menstrual cycle and development of uterine lining • Testes produce: • Androgens – testosterone most important, influences both the development of male physical characteristics and sexual drive. • These hormones are produced by the adrenal glands in males and females and by the testes in males

15. Sex of the Internal Reproductive Structures • By 8 weeks after conception, the sex hormones, as previously discussed help differentiate the internal reproductive systems…. • Male fetus: androgens stimulate the Wolffian ducts to develop into the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts. Another hormone, MIS, causes the Mullerian duct system to shrink and disappear • Female fetus: in absence of androgens, the Mullerian ducts develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the inner third of the vagina; and the Wolffian duct system disappears

16. Sex of the External Genitals • These tissues will develop into either a penis or vagina depending on the presence or absence of a testosterone product called dihydrotestosterone (DHT) • Process complete by the 12th week –http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gender/dete_flash.html

17. Homologous Sex Organs Female Male Glans of penis Foreskin of penis Shaft of penis Scrotal sac Testes Prostate gland Cowper’s glands • Clitoris • Hood of clitoris • Labia minora • Labia majora • Ovaries • Skene’s ducts • Bartholin’s glands

18. Sex Differentiation of the Brain • MANY AREAS OF THE DEVELOPING PRENATAL BRAIN ARE SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTED BY CIRCULATING HORMONES! • Gender Identity Formation….. • Size difference between male & female brains – age 6, males 15% larger (due to androgens) • 3 major areas involved in brain sex differences: • Hypothalamus: a small structure in the central core of the brain that controls the pituitary gland and regulates motivated behavior and emotional expression • Cerebral Hemispheres: the two sides, right and left of the cerebrum • Corpus Callosum: the broad band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres

20. Cerebral Hemispheres • Left – verbal abilities, expression and understanding of speech. Right – spatial orientation, recognition of objects and shapes • The two sides communicate through a broad band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum • This structure tends to be thicker in women’s brains • Cerebral Cortex: outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres that is responsible for higher mental processes • hemisphere thicker in males

21. Hypothalamus • Reacts to the presence or absence of circulating testosterone during prenatal differentiation • Absence – female hypothalamus develops receptor cells sensitive to estrogen • Presence – cells prevent sensitivity to estrogen • Puberty – female’s hypo directs pituitary gland to release hormones in cyclic fashion, leads to menstrual cycle. Males – hypo directs steady production of sex hormones • Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST): a tiny hypothalamic region which contains androgen and estrogen receptors and appears to exert significant influence on human sex differences and human sexual functioning • This area is significantly larger in men than in women, as well as the Preoptic area (POA).

22. Prenatal Variations • There are two major types of variations in development: • Sex Chromosome Variations – patterns other than XX or XY • Prenatal Hormone Variations – presence or absence of the usual prenatal hormones changes the development of the internal and/or external genitals, and probably the brain as well • Study Table 5.3 in text for details of these variations.

23. Intersex • A term applied to people who possess biological attributes of both sexes. • True Hermaphrodite: have both ovarian and testicular tissue. Genitals are a mixture of male & female – about 1 in a million • Pesudohermaphrodites: 1 in every 2,000 births. Also possess ambiguous internal and external reproductive anatomy, but unlike true hermaphrodites, they are born with gonads that match their chromosomal sex. • These conditions can occur from sex chromosome variations or prenatal hormone variations

24. Sex-Chromosome Disorders • Individuals can be born with one or more chromosome or missing one sex chromosome • more than 70 atypical conditions of the sex chromosomes exist • Turner’s Syndrome: presence of only one sex chromosome, X. Develop normal external genitals, but internal reproductive structures do not fully develop. • 45 chromosomes – designated as XO • 1 in every 2,500-3,00o births • Klinefelter’s Syndrome: the presence of 2 X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (XXY). • 1 in every 1,000 births • Anatomically male, low sex drive, usually identify as male

25. Prenatal Hormone Disorders • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): chromosomally normal male insensitive to the action of testosterone and other androgens. • Born with female genitalia and shallow vagina • Often discovered in late adolescence • Fetally Androgonized Females: chromosomally normal XX female, exposed to excessive androgens during prenatal sex differentiation, develops external genitalia resembling male. • Surgery and hormone therapy • May identify as female, but engage in traditional male activities

26. DHT-deficient male: chromosomally normal (XY) male who develops external genitalia resembling those of a female as a result of a genetic defect that prevents the prenatal conversion of testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT). • Reared female….until puberty when testosterone production reverses the DHT deficiency. Testes descend and clitoris enlarges into a penis. • Dominican Republic: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQESPaEj8dk&feature=endscreen

27. Social-Learning Influences on Gender Identity • In contrast to the biological material, social-learning theory says that gender identity results primarily from social and cultural influences during early development • boys and girls are treated differently from the moment of birth or before • by 18 months, most children have developed a firm sense of gender identity, and usually insist in behaving in a way consistent with that gender identity • Mead, an important anthropologist, argued that culture determines gender role, not biology, because what is appropriate for each gender varies from one culture to another • Reimer twins - John Colapinto http://bit.ly/19kWbu • long-term case studies by John Money of intersex individuals with atypical gender development were interpreted as supporting the importance of gender of assignment and rearing • follow-up of Money’s cases by Diamond, however, suggested that biological factors during development do affect gender identity

28. Transsexual & Transgender • Transsexual: A person whose gender identity is not in agreement with her/his biological sex • Gender Dysphoria which is feeling trapped in a body of the “wrong” sex (i.e., imagine yourself waking up tomorrow and discovering that your body had changed to that of the other sex) • Some transsexuals are so distressed by the perceived mismatch between their body and their gender identity that they have surgery to make their body conform to their gender identity – others choose not to have sexual reassignment surgery and to live with a “mix” of masculine and feminine characteristics • Transgender: An all-encompassing term used to refer to anyone who transgresses traditional, stereotypical notions of male/female gender presentation. • Too Wong Foo: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0oPcs0aeakU&feature=related

30. Problems Trans People Face • Depression • Prejudice & discrimination • Difficulty finding housing • Difficulty obtaining health care • Loss of family / significant other • Loss of employment • Substance abuse • Self mutilation • Suicide

31. Etiology • Some individuals seem to develop perfectly normally, and yet believe they were born with the body of the wrong sex – there is no conclusive evidence for a biological cause of transsexualism, but some suggestion of abnormal exposure to prenatal hormones - no consistent patterns of rearing and socialization • Transsexualism seems to be virtually unchangeable – people with this condition may wish to change their life so strongly that they consider suicide, many seek surgery to change their body • It is a long process of psychological evaluation, hormone treatment, and time living as the other gender to obtain such surgery – this has always been controversial • Unanswered questions about this condition show how little we still really understand about how gender identity develops • Surgical reassignment surgery (SRS) is successful in 9 of 10 transsexuals - male-to-female and female-to-male equally successful – they have better adjustment if they have surgery than if they don't have it

32. Surgery -Female to male -Penis & scrotum reconstruction -Testosterone injections

33. Male to female surgery • Vulva construction • Usually the more successful surgery • Penis is inverted so glans is still available and nerve endings intact. • Depth of vagina often a problem, not as flexible as a genetic woman