Academic Writing Process: From Analysis to Proofreading

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2. The Writing Process Explaining all the stages of producing a piece of academic writing, from analysing the title, reading the sources, note-making and referencing, through to rewriting and proofreading the final draft. 2

3. 1.1 Why do we write? What is the purpose of academic writing? Writing Basics (p.3) Can you think of four reasons? 3

4. Common reasons for writing (p.3) To report research done by the writer To answer a question the writer was given To give the writer’s views on a topic To synthesise research done by others 4

5. Common types of academic writing (p.4) What are the differences between these types of academic writing?  Essay  Dissertation/ Thesis  Project  Article  Notes  Report 5

6. The format of written assignments (p.5) Longer essays and reports usually include: Introduction Main body  Literature review  Case study  Discussion Conclusion References Appendices 6

7. Common text features (p.7) Discuss the function of these text components. Titles and sub-titles Citation Abbreviation Italics Brackets Inverted commas Footnotes and endnotes 7

8. Writing in paragraphs (p.9) Discuss these questions with another student: What is a paragraph? Why are texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs? Do paragraphs have a standard structure? 8

9. 1.2 Understanding essay questions and the planning process (pp.11-13) These are some of the key words used in essay titles. What are they asking you to do? • Analyse • Assess • Describe • Discuss • Examine • Illustrate • Outline • Summarise 9

10. All written work needs planning, even in exams. Outlines (p.16) A clear plan helps answer the question fully. Different patterns of outline suit different students – what is your favourite? 10

11. Two outline styles (p.17) Title: What are the most significant sources of renewable energy? List Wind – best sites often remote a) Solar – costs have reduced sharply b) Thermal – limited application c) Mind map Wind (best sites often remote) Sources Thermal (limited application) Solar (costs have reduced sharply) 11

12. 1.3 Reading: Finding suitable sources (p.19) Discuss with another student what types of text may be suitable for academic work. 12

13. Types of text (p.19) What are the advantages and disadvantages of these text types for academic writing? • Textbook • Website • Journal article • Official report • Newspaper or magazine article • E-book • Edited book 13

14. Searching library catalogues (p.23) Online library catalogues let you find the material you need quickly. Remember: Vary your search terms for best results Use the most up-to-date books Subject databases help you find relevant journal articles 14

15. Reading strategies (p.28) Reading academic texts in the quantity required for most courses is a demanding task. Yet clearly it is quite different from reading a magazine for entertainment. Discuss the strategies that you find helpful before and during reading. 15

16. 1. Read title and sub-title carefully 2. Survey text features e.g. abstract, contents, index 3. Skim text for gist – is it relevant? Assessing texts (p.29) 4. Scan text for information you need e.g. names 5. Read extensively when useful sections are found 6. Read intensively to make notes on key points 16

17. 1.4 Reading: Developing critical approaches (p.31) Critical thinking means not accepting without question what you read. When you read ask yourself questions such as: • What are the key ideas in this? • Does the writer’s argument develop logically? • Are the examples given helpful? • Does the author have any bias? • Does the evidence presented seem reliable? 17

18. Fact and opinion (p.31) As you read you must distinguish between facts: You must also decide if the ‘facts’ are true: and opinions: •Singapore lies near the equator. •Singapore is a lively, welcoming city. •Singapore has a hot, dry climate (?). 18

19. Decide if the following contain facts, opinions or both. Are the facts true? 1. Sydney is the capital of Australia. 2. Australia is a dynamic, prosperous country. Fact or opinion? (p.32) 3. The majority of Australians live on sheep farms. 4. Australia is the largest island in the world. 5. Australians are the world’s best cricket players. 19

20. Before making notes, you must find the most important and relevant ideas in a text. 1.5 Finding key points and note- making (p.39) Where are these often found? 20

21. You will develop your own style of note- making. How many notes you make depends on the task. Always use your own words – don’t copy Effective note- making (p.43) Record the source of your notes Keep notes simple – no articles or prepositions Don’t crowd notes and use clear headings Use symbols (=, +, >) Abbreviations save space (e.g. govt. dept.) Can you suggest any other tips? 21

22. 1.6 Avoiding plagiarism (p.46) Discuss with another student why it should be avoided. What do we mean by plagiarism? 22

23. Acknowledging sources (p.46) To show that you are using someone else’s ideas, you can use either: 1 Summary and citation: Smith (2009) claims that the modern state … 2 Quotation and citation: According to Smith: ‘The point is not that the state … (Smith, 2009: 103) 23

24. Acknowledging sources (p.47) These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the article or chapter: Author Date Title Place Publisher Smith, M. (2009) Power and the State Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan This reference gives readers the information they need to find the source if they want to study the original. 24

25. 1.7 References and quotations (p.57) Why should we use references and citations? To show awareness of the relevant sources To allow your readers to find the sources To avoid plagiarism Can you suggest any situation where it is NOT necessary to use references and citations? 25

26. Citations and references (p.58) Citations provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper: •For a quotation: Family name/ date of publication/ page no. (Smith, 2009:37) •For a summary: Family name/ date of publication Smith (2009) 26

27. Why use quotations in written work? -When the original words are distinctive -When the original is concise Using quotations (p.61) -When the original is well-known Quotations should be introduced by a suitable phrase: As Keynes (1923) remarked ‘In the long run we are all dead’. 27

28. What makes a good summary? 1.8 Tell another student about a film you have recently watched. Summarising and paraphrasing (p.67) Did they summarise the story clearly? Why? / Why not? 28

29. Stages of summarising (p.68) In academic work summarising can be a one- sentence outline or include much more detail.  Put these steps of summarising in logical order: • Write summary from notes • Make notes of key points • Read original text carefully • Underline or highlight key points • Check summary to ensure accuracy 29

30. Paraphrasing (p.71) While summarising aims to reduce text length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the ideas. Effective paraphrasing is vital for avoiding plagiarism. It should: • Have a different structure to the original • Have mainly different vocabulary • Retain the same meaning 30

31. 1.9 Contrasting sources (p.76) At the beginning of a paper writers generally refer to the views of other writers on the topic. Discuss reasons for this with another student. 31

32. Referring to sources (p.76) In longer papers these sections may be called ‘Literature review’. Read the following extract: The expectations which students have of higher education are influenced by their prior educational experiences (Ramsden, 1992, p.82; Tinto, 2005; Cook and Rushton, 2008). What is the writer’s reason for giving these sources? 32

33. Contrasting sources (p.77) It is important to compare a range of views to show that you are familiar with the different or conflicting views on a topic. Discuss possible reasons for this with another student. 33

34. Discuss the following with another student: Why do we write in paragraphs? 1.10 Organising paragraphs (p.83) How do paragraphs help the reader? Do all paragraphs have the same format? 34

35. A paragraph is a group of sentences on the same topic. Most paragraphs contain at least four sentences. Paragraph structure (p.83) Usually the first sentence introduces the topic. The parts of a paragraph are linked together by reference words, conjunctions and adverbs. 35

36. Introducing and linking paragraphs (p.86) To introduce a new topic: •Turning to the issue of inflation … •Inflation is another area to consider … Adverbs can also be used: •Traditionally, few examples were found … •Currently, there is little evidence of … •Originally, most families were … Can you suggest any other suitable phrases? 36

37. Introductions are a critical component of any paper. 1.11 Introductions and conclusions (p.89) Suggest possible reasons for this. Discuss what you expect to find in an introduction. 37

38. Introduction structure (p.90) This is a common outline of an introduction: • Definition of any key terms • Relevant background information • Review of work by other writers • Aim of the paper • Your research methods • Any limitations to your research • An outline of the paper 38

39. Arrange these parts of a conclusion in a logical sequence: • Suggestions for further research • Summary of your main findings Conclusions (p.93) • The implications of your work • Reference to the limitations you set • Link back to original question to show it has been answered

40. 1.12 Editing and proofreading (p.95) The first draft of written work can always be improved. When you re-read, ask these questions: • Does this fully answer the question? • Is it well-balanced between the sections? • Does the argument develop logically? • Have I forgotten any critical points? • Is it the right length, not too short or long? 40

41. Proofreading (p.97) Proofreading is the final stage of the writing process. Even minor errors can create difficulty for the reader: Multiple errors will make a sentence almost incomprehensible: •Tow factors need to be considered •A america senate once say: ‘truth is first casualty off war’. 41