Challenges to the “Concert” System: Conservative Order /Reform & Revolution 1815-1848

1. Challengesto the“Concert” System: Conservative Order /Reform & Revolution 1815-1848

2. The Conservative Order & the Economic Advance Objective: Students are to analyze the prevailing political and economic philosophies that propelled the historical events of the first half of the 19th century. 1. Analyze the political and economic theories prevalent in conservatism, liberalism, radicalism (socialism/communism). 2. Analyze the social effects among the nobility, bourgeoisie, proletariat and the peasantry. 3. Analyze the goals of the “Concert of Europe” and how liberalism and nationalism challenged these goals. 4. Analyze the how romanticism fueled nationalism. 5. Compare and contrast the American Revolution with the Revolutions in Latin America. 6. Analyze how reforms, revolts and revolutions in Europe challenged the conservative order. 7. Analyze the emergence of new social classes and how this new working class became politically active. 8. Analyze the family structures among the working class and women. 9. Compare and contrast the philosophies of classical economics with early forms of socialism. 10. Analyze the causes of the Revolutions of 1848.

3. The Conservative Order & the Economic Advance Was challenged by Led to Was challenged by Pol/Econ Philosophies & Revolutions Challenges to the Conservative Order Industrial Society Nationalism & Liberalism Philosophies • Nationalism • Threatened to breakup empires (Aus,Rus,Ottoman) • Threatened to unify others (Germany, Italy) • Liberalism • Elected parliaments • Free trade • Laissez-faire • Conservativism • Austria- Metternich suppress lib & nat • German States- Carlsbad Decrees • Russia- Decembrists • Britain- Peterloo/Six Acts • France- The Charter/July Revolution • Spanish Revolution (1820) • Concert of Europe • Latin American Revolutions • Haiti, South America • Classical Economics • Adam Smith • Laissez-faire • Thomas Malthus • Population theory • David Ricardo • Iron Law of Wages • Early Socialism • Utopian Socialism • St. Simon/Owen/Fourier • Anarchism • Blanqui • Proudhon • Marxism • Communist Manifesto/Kapital • Revolutions of 1848 • Liberals & Nationalists rise up against European conservative order • Population/Migration • Improvements in transp • Railways,steamships,canals • New Labor Force • Working Class • Wage labor • chartism • Family Structures • Role of Women • Child labor- Factory Act 1833 • Prison Reform • Police Force (bobbies) • Penal Colonies (Aus/NZ) • Auburn & Philadelphia System

4. Geography

5. Europe 1815 Following the Napoleonic Wars, nationalism threatened to breakup the empires of Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. However, nationalism was also stirring in the Italian and German states that could potentially unify these peoples into nation-states. Liberalism also threatened to topple existing regimes or force representative governments with constitutions upon the autocratic monarchies of Europe. The Revolutions of 1830and 1848 will dramatically illustrate that point. Napoleonic Kingdom of Sweden nationalism Fin Austria Russia Ottoman Empire Nor Scot Est Confederation of the Rhine (German States) Italian Great Britain ENGLAND William and Mary replace James II in the Glorious Revolution in 1688. They make the English Bill of Rights in 1689. . German Lat London Amsterdam Denmark Ire Lith NETHERLANDS nation-states Nether lands Liberalism Russia Paris regimes Prussia EUROPE representative Ukr FRANCE Pol autocratic Bel constitutions Revolution ends monarchy. Czech Pol 1830 Slov France 1848 Austria Ger French go from monarchy to democracy to monarchy. Swiss Hun It Serb/ Croat Rep of Venice Rom Portugal Basque Italian States Bul Serb Spain Papal States Sardinia- Piedmont Mace Mediterranean Sea Ottoman Empire Alb Spanish Naples AFRICA Greek

6. The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform

7. The Congress of Vienna Congress of Vienna -met in 1814 and 1815 to redraw the map of Europe after the Napoleonic era -Failure of statesmen who shaped the future of Europe in 1814-1815 -attempted to provide some way of preserving the future peace of Europe. • -Europe was spared a general war throughout the remainder of the 19th century • - • *Didn’t recognize the factors unleashed by the French Revolution: • -Nationalism and liberalism • Attempted to maintain the status quo

8. The “Big Four” • The Vienna Settlement • was the work of the representatives of the four nations that had done the most to defeat Napoleon. • Czar Alexander I (Russia) • Advocated an independent Poland under Russian control • Prince Klemens Von Metternich (Austria) • Epitomized conservative reactionism. • Lord Castlereagh (England) • balance of power on the continent and surround France with larger stronger states. • Karl Von Hardenberg Karl Von Hardenberg (Prussia) • Goal was to recover Prussian territory lost to Napoleon & gain additional territory in northern Germany (Saxony).

9. Talleyrand Periogord Talleyrand-French Foreign Minister • not initially included in the early deliberations • Mediator where the interests of Prussia and Russia clashed with those of England and Austria. Talleyrand brought France into the ranks of the principal powers.

10. “The Dancing Congress” • European gathering was held amid much pageantry. • Parties, balls, and • banquets reminded the • delegates what life had • been like before 1789. • Intended to • generate favorable • “public opinion” and • occupy the delegates • since they had little to • do of any serious • nature.

11. Principles of Settlement The three main principles discussed at the Congress of Vienna were: • Legitimacy • Returning to power the ruling families deposed • Dynasties restored in Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany and Modena • Compensation • Territorially rewarding those states which had made considerable sacrifices to defeat Napoleon. • Balance of Power • Meant arranging the map of Europe so that never again could one state upset the international order and cause a general war. Various adjustments were made in the countries of Europe in order to surround France.

12. Enforcement of the Status Quo Arrangements to guarantee the enforcement of the status quo as defined by the Vienna settlement now included tow provisions: • The “Holy Alliance” • An unpractical attempt to unify Europe, only taken seriously by Alexander I of Russia. • The “Quadruple Alliance” • Russia, Prussia, England and Austria provided for concerted action to arrest any threat to the peace or balance of power. England and Austria differed on their definition of concerted action.

13. The Congress System From 1815 to 1822, European international relations were controlled by the series of meetings held by the Great Powers to monitor and defined the status quo: The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1816) The Congress of Troppau (1820) The Congress of Laibach (1821) The Congress of Verona (1822) • The principle of collective security required unanimity among members of the Quadruple Alliance. • -Failure occurred because of the conflicting interests of the Great Powers

14. Evaluation • The Congress of Vienna has been criticized for ignoring the liberal and nationalist aspirations of so many peoples. -Hindsight suggests the statesmen at Vienna may have been more successful in stabilizing the international system than we have been able to do in the 20th century. • Not until the unification of Germany in 1870-71, was the balance of power upset. • Not until World War I in 1914, did Europe have another general war. -Hindsight tells us however that the leading statesmen at Vienna underestimated the new nationalism and liberalism generated by the French Revolution.

15. Conservatism,Nationalism,& Liberalism

16. Conservatism Reaction to liberalism • Conservatism • became a popular • alternative for those • frightened by the violence • of the French Revolution. • Early Conservatism • allied to the restored monarchial governments of Austria, Russia, France, and England. Support for conservatism: • came from the traditional ruling • classes. • Also supported by the peasants • -A majority of the population Supported by Romantic writers Edmund Burke- Father of Conservative Thought • conservatives believed in • order, society and the state, • faith and tradition.

17. Characteristics of Conservatism Conservatives viewed history as a continuum (Traditions) To conservatives, society was hierarchical. Conservative Beliefs: • The basis of society is organic, not contractual • Stability and longevity, not progress and change, mark a good society. • The only legitimate sources of political authority were God and history. • Rejected the “social contract” theory • Conservatives believed self-interests do not lead to social harmony, but to social conflict. Denounced individualism and natural rights.

18. Liberalism Liberalism • -first major theory in the to teach • that the individual is a self- • sufficient being, whose freedom is • the sole reasons for the existence • of society. • Liberalism was reformist and political not revolutionary in nature. -Come from the middle classes and favored increased liberty for their class and indirectly, for the masses of people, as long as the latter did not in their turn ask for too much freedom -Come from the middle classes and favored increased liberty for their class and indirectly, for the masses of people, as long as the latter did not in their turn ask for too much freedom

19. Characteristics of Liberalism • Individuals are entitled to seek their freedom in the face of arbitrary or tyrannical restrictions imposed upon them. • Liberals also advocated the “Balance of Power” theory and free trade. • Utilitarianism • Founded by Jeremy Bentham • Supported the concept of natural rights. • Best guaranteed by written constitutions. • theory held the pleasure-pain principle as its key idea. equated pleasure with good and pain with evil. • Supported the concept of “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”

20. Economic Liberalism • Liberals advocated economic • individualism. • Economic liberalism • All Supported laissez faire economics • “Wealth of Nations” by Adam Smith 1776 • Free Trade • Laissez-faire Adam Smith- The Wealth of Nations • Thomas Malthus • Essay on the Principle of Population • population theory (Dismal Theory) • Ricardo’s Principles of Political Economy • “Iron Law of Wages” • Based on the realities of a • new industrial era. Thomas Malthus- “Dismal Theory” • The Industrial Revolution is • beginning to take place • throughout Europe. David Ricardo- “The Iron Law of Wages”

21. Early 19th Century Liberals • England: • Thomas Robington Macaulay & John Stuart Mill • Wilhelm von Humboldt, Friedrich List, Karl von Rotteck and Karl Theodor Welcker • France: • Benjamin Constant, Victor cousin, Jean Baptiste Say and Alexis de Tocqueville • Germany:

22. The Impact of Liberalism • Liberalism • involved in the various revolutionary movements of the early 19th century. -It affected German student organizations (Burschenchaften) and permeated Prussian life. • Over ten constitutions secured between 1815 and 1848 in states of the German Confederation. • Reform measures in Britain • -governments adopted • liberal reforms after • 1832 and ruled for • decades • be born with the • emergence of new • voters

23. Alexis de Tocqueville • Tocqueville • Liberal who warned against the “tyranny of the majority • Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Communist Russia • Govt take away freedom to create equality (economic) • These fears were not without foundation. In the 20th century, the masses have sometimes shown themselves willing to trade freedom for authority, order, economic security, and national power.

24. Nationalism • Liberal thought in early 19th century Europe was dramatically revealed through an explosive force called nationalism. • was aroused and made militant during the turbulent French Revolutionary era. • Liberal ideas raised the nationalistic consciousness of people • a common language, soil, traditions, history, culture and shared human experiences. • These ideas were needed to promote political unity • these were also the ideas that fostered the identity nationhood or nation-state

25. Characteristics of Nationalism • Early nationalist sentiment was romantic, exuberant and cosmopolitan in nature. • The concept of a nation of people being united by a common language, culture, and history and governed for the good of the whole. • The breakdown of society’s traditional loyalties to church, dynastic state and region began during the course of the 18th century. • Popular Sovereignty • Impelled by the French Revolution, new loyalties were fashioned.

26. Impact of Nationalism • Nationalisticthinkers and writers examined the language, literature, and folkways of their people, thereby stimulating nationalist feelings. • All national groups are parts of that great whole which is humanity. • Emphasized the history and culture of various European people • tended to reinforce and glorify national sentiment. • Early 19th century nationalist leaders adopted the ideas of the German philosopher-historian Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) • regarded as the “Father of modern nationalism.” • Taught that every people is • unique and possesses a distinct • national character, or • Volksgeist., which as evolved over • several centuries. • No one culture or people • is superior to any other.

27. Revolutionary Movements in the Early 19c • The Conservative Order • Spanish Revolution of 1820 • (Ferdinand VII of Spain • Dissolves Cortes) -Promised Constitution but revoked promise -Latin American colonies & military rebels against Ferdinand -Congress of Troppau Metternich at the Congress of Laibach got permission to invade Naples after Revolution broke out -Greek Revolution in 1821 “The Eastern Question” What to do about the “sickman of Europe.” -Decembrist Revolt (1825) Military officers attempt to takeover new Czar and get a constitution

28. 19c Latin American Independence Movements

29. Wallachia & Moldavia Independence Movementsin the Balkans

30. Greek Revolution - 1821

31. Greek Independence • The “Eastern Question” • Hetairia Philike a secret society that inspired an uprising against the Turks in 1821. • Pan-Hellenism • 1827  Battle of Navarino • Br, Fr, Rus destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. • 1828  Rus declared war on the Otts. • 1829  Treaty of Adrianople • 1830  Greece declared an independent nation [Treaty of London]. Greece on the Ruins of Missilonghi by Delacroix, 1827

32. Lord Byron – Martyr in Greece

33. The Decembrist Uprising - 1825

34. The Decembrist Revolt, 1825 • Russian upper class had come into contact with western liberal ideas during the Napoleonic Wars. • Late November, 1825  Czar Alexander I died suddenly. • He had no direct heir  dynastic crisis • Constantine  married a woman, not of royal blood. • Nicholas  named by Alexander I as his heir before his death. • Russian troops were to take an oath of allegiance to Nicholas, who was less popular than Constantine [Nicholas was seen as more reactionary]. • December 26, 1825  a Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg and refused to take the oath.

35. The Decembrist Revolt, 1825 • They wanted Constantine. • Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents. • Over 60 were killed. • 5 plotters were executed. • Over 100 insurgents were exiled to Siberia. • Results: • The first rebellion in modern Russian history where the rebels had specific political goals. • In their martyrdom, the Decembrists came to symbolize the dreams/ideals of all Russian liberals. • Nicholas was determined that his power would never again come into question  he was terrified of change!

36. The Decembrist Uprising - 1825 • Orthodoxy! • Autocracy! • Nationalism! Nicholas I

37. The 1830 Revolutions

38. France: The “Restoration” Era (1815-1830) • France emerged from the chaos of its revolutionary period as the most liberal large state in Europe. • Louis XVIII governed France as a Constitutional monarch. • He agreed to observe the 1814 “Charter” or Constitution of the Restoration period. • Limited royal power. • Granted legislative power. • Protected civil rights. • Upheld the Napoleon Code. Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824)

39. Raft of the Medusa • Painting was a social commentary on French state • Becomes a metaphor for discontent among the masses • French frigate crashes in Mediterranean • Captain who crashed ship was a noble who received job based on birth rite rather than merit found incompetent • Starving people hanging onto a make-shift raft struggling to survive • “All of France is on that raft” • The incompetent Louis XVIII who received his job by birth not merit leads the country aimlessly

40. The “Ultras” • France was divided by those who had accepted the ideals of the Fr. Revolution and those who didn’t. • The Count of Artois was the leader of the “Ultra-Royalists” • 1815 “White Terror” • Royalist mobs killed 1000s of former revolutionaries. • 1816 elections • The Ultras were rejected in the Chamber of Deputies election in favor of a moderate royalist majority dependent on middle class support. The Count of Artois,the future King Charles X (r. 1824-1830)

41. France: Conservative Backlash • 1820the Duke of Berri, son of Artois, was murdered. • Royalists blamed the left. • Louis XVIII moved the govt. more to the right • Changes in electoral laws narrowed the eligible voters. • Censorship was imposed. • Liberals were driven out of legal political life and into illegal activities. • 1823 triumph of reactionary forces! • Fr troops were authorized by the Concert of Europe to crush the Spanish Revolution and restore another Bourbon ruler, Ferdinand VII, to the throne there.

42. King Charles X of France (r. 1824-1830) • His Goals: • Lessen the influence of the middle class. • Limit the right to vote. • Put the clergy back in charge of education. • Public money used to pay nobles for the loss of their lands during the Fr Revolution. • His Program: • Attack the 1814 Charter. • Control the press. • Dismiss the Chamber of Deputies when it turned against him. • Appointed an ultra-reactionary as his first minister. • Limited royal power. • Granted

43. King Charles X of France (r. 1824-1830) • 1830 Election brought in another liberal majority. • July Ordinances • He dissolved the entire parliament. • Strict censorship imposed. • Changed the voting laws so that the government in the future could be assured of a conservative victory.

44. To the Barracades Revolution, Again!! Workers, students and some of the middle class call for a Republic!

45. Louis Philippe  The “Citizen King” • The Duke of Orleans. • Relative of the Bourbons, but had stayed clear of the Ultras. • Lead a thoroughly bourgeois life. • His Program: • Property qualifications reduced enough to double eligible voters. • Press censorship abolished. • The King ruled by the will of the people, not by the will of God. • The Fr Revolution’s tricolor replaced the Bourbon flag. • The government was now under the control of the wealthy middle class. (r. 1830-1848)

46. Louis Philippe  The “Citizen King” • His government ignored the needs and demands of the workers in the cities. • They were seen as another nuisance and source of possible disorder. • July, 1832  an uprising in Paris was put down by force and 800 were killed or wounded. • 1834  Silk workers strike in Lyon was crushed. • Seething underclass. • Was seen as a violation of the status quo set down at the Congress of Vienna. A caricature ofLouis Philippe

47. Belgian Independence, 1830 • The first to follow the lead of France. • Its union with Holland after the Congress of Vienna had not proved successful. • There had been very little popular agitation for Belgian nationalism before 1830  seldom had nationalism arisen so suddenly. • Wide cultural differences: • North  Dutch  Protestant  seafarers and traders. • South  French  Catholic  farmers and individual workers.

48. Belgian Revolution - 1830

49. A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830

50. A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830 • The bloodiest struggle of the 1830 revolutions. • The Poles in and around Warsaw gain a special status by the Congress of Vienna within the Russian Empire. • Their own constitution. • Local autonomy granted in 1818. • After Tsar Alexander I dies, the Poles became restless under the tyrannical rule of Tsar Nicholas I. • Polish intellectuals were deeply influenced by Romanticism. • Rumors reached Poland that Nicholas I was planning to use Polish troops to put down the revolutions in France and Belgium. • Several Polish secret societies rebelled.