INTERACTIONS 1939 - Present

1. INTERACTIONS1939 - Present WAR DIPLOMACY

2. LEAGUE OF NATIONS • The League of Nations created to maintain world peace • Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe • Dominated by UK, France and used as force against Germany • The league had no power to enforce its decisions • League could only • Make suggestions • Impose sanctions • Blockades • Collective security depended on all major powers • Powers Left Out • United States never joined • USSR ignored • Germany not invited for some time • The mandate system • United States opposed direct colonization • Allies proposed system of trusteeships • France, United Kingdom benefited most • Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia • Idealistic Attempts • Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties • Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty • Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels

3. LEAGUE OF NATIONS

4. OLD AND NEW CAUSES OF WAR • Japan • Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931 • League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league • 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China • 1937 War In China Resumed • Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese • Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks • Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941 • Italy, Germany, and Russia • Italy after the Great War • Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference • Mussolini promised national glory, empire • Invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed Albania • Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles • Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis • Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles Treaty • After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement • Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft • Militarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did nothing • Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939 • Spanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fight • Italians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists won • The Munich Conference: Peace for our time? • In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland • Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler • Russian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked world

5. BROKEN TREATIES, WARS

6. LEADERS

7. WORLD WAR II: AXIS 1939 - 1942 • Blitzkrieg: Germany conquers Western Europe : 1939 – 1940 • Blitzkrieg: lightening war of tank, air, mobility • Battle of the Atlantic: German subs against British convoys • Battle of Britain: British defeat German airforce • The German invasion of the Soviet Union • 1941: Germany conquers Balkans, invades USSR • Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia • Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity, • Germans ill-prepared for war, stalled at Stalingrad • U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor • Roosevelt sold, "loaned" arms , war material to UK • Later supplied the Soviets and the Chinese • Japanese expansion • Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941 • USA responded by freezing Japanese assets, used oil embargo • Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia • 7 December 1941 • US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked • US declared war on Japan; Germany, Italy declared war on USA • Japanese overran Southeast Asia, swept seas of Allied Navies

10. WORLD WAR II: 1942 - 1945 • Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941 • USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies • Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130 • Germany forced to fight a two front war • German subs sank 2,452 ships, U.S. shipyards built more • Allied victories came after 1943 • Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back • 1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy • June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy • Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944 • Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities • Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide • Turning the tide in the Pacific • The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code • Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks • US launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empire • British invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE Asia • Chinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troops • Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa • US launches round the clock air raids against Japan • Japanese used kamikazes; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender • U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender • Japanese surrender after devastating assault • U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed • August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000 • Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII

13. Total War • Total War • Mobilization of all society in order to win • Civilians used to work in war industry • Women used in non-combatant roles • Minorities employed in many roles including combat • Industry, science mobilized to support war • Allies went on total war very early; Axis delayed and it cost them the war • Civilians and the War • Combatants started to attack civilians • Cities and civilian targets became fair game • Guerillas • Non-traditional combatants attack enemy behind the lines • In Yugoslavia, Albania, Poland, France, Russia, China helped win the war • Technology • Scientists became an integral part of the war • Rockets, jet fighters, radar, atomic bombs, super weapons • Allies had a clear and early lead but Germany had its surprises

14. GROWTHOF GDPDURINGWAR YEARS

15. WORLD WAR II ALLIANCES

16. HOME FRONTS • “Civilians” • Impossible in new war to separate front, rear areas • All nations had to mobilize who population to survive • US had it easiest but all other civilians suffered • Occupation, collaboration, and resistance • Patterns of occupation varied : Germany, Japan were worst • Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples • Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories • Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans • Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces • Japanese domination not much different from European domination • Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration • Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops • Resistance to occupation took many forms • Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination • Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit • Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare • Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities • Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese • Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war • Prisoner of War, Enemy Combatants, Detainees • Western Allies treated POWs well • Russians, Germans, Japanese did not • US detained and isolated 150,000 people of Japanese descent

17. WOMEN, MINORITIES AND WAR • Minorities • The Germans utilized racially acceptable minorities in their army • Russians, Chinese mobilized everyone – irrespective of race, ethnicity • Japanese enlisted other ethnic groups but mistreated their Korean soldiers • The USA and the African Americans • Given low, menial jobs; segregated from white troops • White officers commanded black units • Only later in war allowed into combat • Graduates of Tuskagee formed a famous fighter squadron • The British and French • Mobilized their empires and citizens for war • British Indian Army, French colonial troops very active • Women and the war • "It's a Woman's War, Too!" • Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services • Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups • Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys • Women's social roles changed dramatically • By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence • Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war • "Comfort women" • Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels • 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea • Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame

18. GENOCIDES: HOLOCAUST • Types of Murder • Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out • Democide: Mass murder of people by government • Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another • Armenian Holocaust • First genocide of 20th century • Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I • The Holocaust • Long history of anti-Semitism • Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures • At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration • Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth • Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control • The "final solution" • Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union • By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews • By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland • Jewish resistance • Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease • Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans • Altogether • About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died • Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered • Other Examples • Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo • Genocides: Rwanda, Sudan • Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq

20. SETTLEMENTS & COLD WAR • The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) • Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war • Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion • Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam • Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces • Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan • Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies • President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences • Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR • Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany • Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent • Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west • Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south • Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" • Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples • Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism • The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe • Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism • Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites • NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war • 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression • 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response • Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances • United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security

21. MAPPING THE END OF THE WAR

22. COLD WAR BEGINS • Postwar Europe • Divided into competing political, military, economic blocs • NATO, European Economic Communities; Warsaw Pact, COMECON • Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia • Western Europe • U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army • Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies • Eastern Europe • Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police • Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries • Germany divided east and west in 1949 • Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II • Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well • Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949 • The Berlin Wall, 1961 • In Asia • Turkey, Greece, Iran pressured by USSR, allies: US responds with Truman Doctrine • Communist Chinese armed by USSR, drive Nationalists out of China by 1949 • Korea divided into Communist North, Pro-Western South: North invades South in 1950 • Communists influence Viet Minh in Indo-China

23. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS • Post-1945 • Era of international cooperation • Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments • Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) • Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 • Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970 • Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch • The United Nations • Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" • Security Council • Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China • Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war • Often can diffuse tense situations • General Assembly • Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rd world nations dominate • Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community • Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West • ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO • More successful in health and educational goals • Eradication of smallpox and other diseases • Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy • Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance • Nuremberg Trials of Nazis • Established concept of "crimes against humanity“ • Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials • UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights • Forbids slavery, torture, discrimination • Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms

24. UNITED NATIONS, 1945

25. STATE STRUCTURES 1937

26. STATE STRUCTURES 1947

27. STATE STRUCTURES 1957

28. SOUTH ASIA AFTER 1945 • Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948) • Political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul") • Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables • 1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement • 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement • The India Act of 1937 • Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act • Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support : Muslims want independent state • Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state • During World War II • Many Indians sympathetic with Japan, Gandhi pursued peaceful non-cooperation • British were very concerned about Indian disloyalty which really never surfaced • Indian self-rule • British finally willing to consider independence after WWII • Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus • Partition of India and ensuing violence • Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India • Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration • Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948 • Conflicts between India and Pakistan • 1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost • Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers • India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language

29. SOUTHWEST ASIA SINCE 1945 • Arab states gained independence during, after World War II • British suppress Iraqi nationalist uprising in 1941; expel Vichy French from Syria • British, US force French to grant Lebanon, Syria independence in 1943 • Creation of Israel • Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947 • UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed • 1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel • Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel • Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN • Egypt • Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952 • Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism • Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers • Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism, destroying state of Israel • Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige • Canal owned by UK; Nasser nationalized it • British, French, and Israeli forces attack to retake canal • US, USSR condemned military action, forced them to withdraw • Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe • Pan-Arab Nationalism • Sought to unify Arabs in one secularized state; downplayed Islam • Egypt, Syria, Yemen united in 1968; union late broke down • Strongly influenced by Arab-Israeli conflict • Ba’ath Parties in Syria, Iraq strongest Pan-Arab Parties

30. AFRICA AFTER 1945 • Black African nationalism and independence • Growth of African nationalism • Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism • African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots • Obstacles to African independence • White settlers opposed black independence • Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics • Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa • South Africa • Transformation of South Africa • Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population • South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during WWII • Black workers demanded political change • 1948 : Afrikaner National Party wins control of South African government • Apartheid • Harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate • 87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by race • African National Congress led by Mandela, launched campaign to protest apartheid • Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960

31. DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA • Forcing the French out of north Africa • France in Africa • 1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria • Algerian Revolt of May 1954 repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died • War in Algeria, 1954-1962 • Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule • By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict • Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa • Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957 • Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions • Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957 • Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya • Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after 1947 • 1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves • Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support • Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans killed

32. DECOLONIZATION