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Colonialzing. Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations. Early Cultures The Mayas, Aztecs, Chibchas , and Incas The first settlers to the Americas were nomadic and followed the herds of animals that they hunted. As the game moved south, so did the hunters, populating the land as they traveled.
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Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • Early Cultures • The Mayas, Aztecs, Chibchas, and Incas • The first settlers to the Americas were nomadic and followed the herds of animals that they hunted. As the game moved south, so did the hunters, populating the land as they traveled. • Permanent farming towns would emerge in Mexico about 2000 B.C., populated by the Mayans. The Mayan culture would eventually collapse and be replaced by that of the Aztecs. • Farther south, in present-day Columbia, the Chibchas would build an empire similar to that of the Aztecs, but on a smaller scale.
When did people first cross the Bering Sea? What evidence have archaeologists and anthropologists found from the lives of the first people in America? Why did those people travel to North America?
What were the major pre-Columbian civilizations? What factors caused the demise of the Mayan civilization? When did the Aztecs build Tenochtitlán?
Mayan society A fresco depicting the social divisions of Mayan society. A Mayan lord, at the center, receives offerings.
Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • Indian Cultures of North America • Three Distinct Civilization Trends Emerged • Adena-Hopwell culture • Mississippian culture • Anasazi culture • The Indian civilizations in North America differed from the farm communities and cities in Central America. They were more nomadic, as the forests and grasslands were not as hospitable for cultivation. During this time, there were three distinct periods of civilization. • The Adena-Hopwell culture flourished in the Midwest between 800 B.C. and A.D. 600. • The Mississippian culture occupied the second era, between A.D. 930 and 1350. • The final culture, Anasazi, is still exists, and has lasted from 400 B.C. to the present. These are the people we think of when we consider the Native American society and culture.
What were the three dominant pre-Columbian civilizations in North America? Where was the Adena-Hopewell culture centered? How was the Mississippian civilization similar to that of the Mayans or Aztecs? What made the Anasazi culture different from the other North American cultures?
Mississippian artifact A ceramic human head effigy from the Mississippian culture. The Mississippians disappeared by 1500.
Cliff dwellings Ruins of Anasazi cliff dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • Native Americans in 1500 • Population of North America • Eastern Woodlands Tribes • Great Plains Tribes • Western Tribes • When the first Europeans arrived, as many as 10 million Native Americans lived in the “New World”. • The Eastern Woodlands tribes were composed of three regional groups, the Algonquian, the Iroquoian, and the Muskogean. Each of these had sub-groups within them. Primarily they were fishers and hunters, with some rudimentary farming as well. • The Plains Indians lived on the Great Plains of North America. Principally nomadic, they would follow the great herds of bison that provided them their primary sustenance. • The Western tribes were involved in fishing, whaling and sealing.
European Visions of America • Norse Explorations • Erik the Red and the Vikings • Leif Ericksson and Newfoundland • The Vikings were the world’s greatest explorers and most feared people in the tenth and eleventh centuries. They would sail from Scandinavia as a far as Constantinople in Turkey and would establish a colony led by Leif Ericksson in Newfoundland in present-day Canada. The colony would fail as settlers would be driven out of the New World by Native Americans.
Vikings in the “New World” A Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, in northeastern Canada. Reconstructed longhouses in Icelandic Viking style are in the background.
When did the first Norse settlers reach North America? What was the symbolic significance of these lands of the Western Hemisphere? How far south in North America did the Norse explorers travel?
The Expansion of Europe • Renaissance Geography • Technological Innovation Spurs a Desire for Knowledge • The role of the compass and the astrolabe • For Europe, the fifteenth century was an age of technological advancement. The acceptance of the compass and the astrolabe allowed for more accurate maps, which spurred the development of trade. The rise of trade fostered the growth of towns and the creation of larger ships to carry products.
The Expansion of Europe • The Growth of Trade, Towns, and Nation-States • In the past, trade had been primarily land based • Problems with land-based travel • Trade has always existed in some form. Whatever form it took, it was primarily land based. It was slow, expensive, and prone to thievery. Lawless lands that merchants were forced to navigate were open to bandits, who would steal from the caravans and, if the merchants were unlucky, would kill them. Towns on the way to the final destination would often charge taxes for traveling through their territory. • Prior to the fifteenth century, shipping trade was expensive and dangerous. Very few people had the money to pay for such shipping and even fewer were willing to risk it on such a venture. • The rise of the nation-states and the consolidation of empires under centralized rulers allowed for the creation of uniformed currency within the area, trade reform, and the abolition of trade barriers. It also created vast sums of wealth that could be used to finance sea trade.
The Voyages of Christopher Columbus • Portuguese Exploration • Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama • Christopher Columbus • Early years • His voyage of discovery in 1492 • Later voyages • America named for Amerigo Vespucci
The Voyages of Christopher Columbus (cont.) • Portugal, by way of its location on the western tip of the isthmus of Spain, was the home of the early leaders in naval exploration. Días sailed the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and da Gama reached India via the same cape in 1498. • Columbus was an Italian who was educated in seamanship in Portugal. He persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to finance a trip across the Atlantic Ocean searching for a westward passage to Asia. • Columbus would sail with three ships and land in the Bahamas. He was convinced that he had landed at an island off of the coast of Asia. Later voyages would look for a western passage to no avail. • A mapmaker named Amerigo Vespucci would be the first to suggest, in 1499, that the new landmass encountered was too large to be an island and must be a continent. America was named in his honor.
Christopher Columbus A portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, ca. 1519, said to be Christopher Columbus.
How many voyages did Columbus make to the Americas? What is the origin of the name for the Caribbean Sea? What happened to the colony that Columbus left on Hispaniola in 1493?
The Great Biological Exchange • Animals • Plants • Devices • Diseases • The two continents were very dissimilar in the manner of plants, animals, devices, and also diseases. After Columbus’s trips to America, future voyages would begin a cultural exchange between the Old and New Worlds. • Animals new to the Old World included the flying squirrel, iguana, catfish, rattlesnake, and armadillos. Animals new to the New World included horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. • Plants new to the Old World included corn, potatoes, peanuts, peppers, and pumpkins. Plants new to the New World included coffee, olives, wheat, and rice. • Devices new to the Old World included canoes, snowshoes, hammocks, and the game of lacrosse. Devices new to the New World included the use of tobacco and several drugs. • Disease new to the New World included smallpox, bubonic plague, malaria, and yellow fever. The transmission of these diseases killed more Native Americans than did any other event.
Algonquian chief in warpaint From the notebook of English settler John White, this sketch depicts an Indian chief.
Professional Explorers • “Right of Discovery” • John Cabot • Vasco Nuñéz de Balboa • Ferdinand Magellan • Sponsored by nation-states, the new profession of professional explorers emerged. By sighting new lands, nations could claim primacy on their soil, thus making this profession very desirable. • John Cabot would discover a “new founde lande,” which would become Canada, and gave his sponsor, King Henry VII of England, claim to all North America. Balboa would become the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World, having landed on the isthmus of Panama and traveling west. • Ferdinand Magellan’s crew would be the first to circumnavigate the globe, although Magellan would not live to complete the voyage.
What is the significance of Magellan’s 1519 voyage? What biological exchanges resulted from these early explorations?
The Spanish Empire • A Clash of Cultures • Cortés’s Conquest • Conquistadores • Thanks to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 between Spain and Portugal, the two nations best posed for water exploration at the time, Spain was granted all rights to the New World. Spain wasted no time in establishing itself in the New World and within a generation had inserted itself firmly into the civilizations there. • This was easily done by having an upper hand in the clash of cultures. Spain held significant technological advancements over the Indian tribes in Mexico, such as iron, sail-powered ships, cannon, and domesticated horses. These easily made up for being tremendously outnumbered by the Native Americans. The sudden influx of diseases the Spaniards brought with them also contributed to their successes. • Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, led the first assault on the Aztec Empire, at first defeating the natural enemies of the Aztecs and then persuading them to join the conquistadores.
Cortés in Mexico Page from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, a historical narrative from the sixteenth century. The scene, in which Cortés is shown seated on a throne, depicts the arrival of the Spanish in Tlaxcala.
Aztec sacrifices to the gods Renowned for military prowess, Aztecs would capture and then sacrifice their enemies.
The Spanish Empire • The Aztecs • The Aztec Religion • The Aztecs were a confederation of city-states renowned for their military prowess. When Cortés invaded, they were one of the most powerful nations in the world. • Their religion was based on a spiritual belief in the forces of nature. They offered sacrifices weekly to their gods by cutting out the heart of a live victim. As a result, they needed large numbers of prisoners of war to provide the much needed organ.
Missionaries in the “New World” A Spanish mission in New Mexico, established to spread the Catholic faith among the indigenous peoples.
The Spanish Empire • Spanish Invaders • Hernán Cortés • Francisco Pizarro • Cortés persuaded or forced many of the Aztecs’ natural enemies to join with the conquistadors as they marched on the Aztec capitol city. Through persuasion, he was able to enter with his forces into Tenochtitlan in a peaceful manner. He befriended the Emperor Montezuma and gained control of the Aztecs’ gold and silver mines. • Pizarro would lead a groups of conquistadores from Panama to Peru, where they subdued the Inca Empire.
The Spanish Empire • Spanish America • Growth of civilizations in the New World • Implementation of the encomienda system • Introduction of slavery • The role of the Catholic Church • Bartolomé de Las Casas
The Spanish Empire (cont.) • By the sixteenth century, Spain’s settlements in the New World stretched from South America to the southern portion of North America. In order to maintain these civilizations, the encomienda system was established. By rewarding faithful officers with land grants and the control of the neighboring villages and Indian tribes, Spain hoped to be able to better cultivate its resources while at the same time establishing a support system for its missions. • By this same time in the West Indies, the Native American population had been virtually wiped out by disease, making it necessary to import African slaves, who had already been exposed to diseases of the Old World, to take their place. • Through the various religious orders of Catholicism, the Empire hoped to establish a Christian empire in the New World. Differing methods existed for converting the “heathen” native to Catholicism, but by the end of the 16th century, most believed it was easier to convert them by force than by persuasion. • De Las Casas, a priest in Cuba, would publish his account of the Spaniards treatment of the Natives, which would lead the Spanish Crown to reconsider their colonial policy in the New World.
The Spanish Empire • Spanish Exploration in North America • Differences between Spanish America and North America • Introduction of the hacienda system • Spanish Explorers • Juan Ponce de Leon • Pánfilo de Narváez and Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca • Hernando de Soto • Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
The Spanish Empire (cont.) • Spanish settlements did not take hold in North America as fast as they had in Central America. This was mainly due to the lack of established civilizations of Native Americans in North America. • In Central America, the Spaniards moved into preexisting cities and took them over. In the North, no such settlements existed. The nomadic lifestyle and lack of precious resources in North America precluded the influx of capital necessary to sustain a viable settlement. • As corruption and wealth grew among the conquistadores, the encomienda system would be replaced with the hacienda. Instead of a city, a smaller farm or ranch would be overseen by an appointed bureaucrat. This would not stop Spanish settlers from seeking their fame and fortune in North America. • Juan Ponce de Leon established a short-lived colony on the Carolina coast. Hernando de Soto traveled up the Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado would search New Mexico following rumors of gold.
The Spanish Empire • Early Spanish Settlements in the United States • Huguenots • St. Augustine • Many of the early Spanish settlements in what is now the United States were established as buffers to French, English, and Russian settlements. • St. Augustine was created on the southern end of Florida to protect Spanish settlements from French Huguenots (Protestants) who had established colonies in the New World in present-day South Carolina
What were the Spanish conquistadores’ goals for exploring the Americas? How did Cortés conquer the Aztecs? Why did the Spanish first explore North America, and why did they establish St. Augustine, the first European settlement in what would become the United States?
The Spanish Empire • The Spanish Southwest • The role of the missions • Juan de Oñate and New Mexico • Pope’s Rebellion • Horses and the Great PlainsSpaniards in the first permanent settlements in the Southwest were more eager to pacify the Native Americans there than to conquer them. They therefore established missions in order to convert them to Catholicism and “civilize” them. • Juan Onate was given a land grant of what is present-day New Mexico. He brutally put down a rebellion of Pueblo Indians that same year and decreed that all Pueblo males over the age of 25 should have one foot severed to remind the Native Americans what would happen if they chose to rebel again. • Not native to the New World, the horse became the Plains Indians’ most useful tool and weapon. Horses became so valuable that they intensified intertribal warfare as the Indians fought for their control.
Cultural conflict This Peruvian illustration, from a 1612– 1615 manuscript by Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala, shows a Dominican friar forcing a native woman to weave.
Plains Indians The horse-stealing raid depicted in this hide painting demonstrates the essential role horses played in Plains life.
The Protestant Reformation • Early Causes and Spread of the Movement • Martin Luther • John Calvin • Reformation in England • At the same time that Spain was colonizing the Americas, the rest of Europe was at war involving the Protestant Reformation. England and France, the only other two nations capable of contesting Spanish settlements in the New World, would wage a series of wars that occupied the majority of their time and resources. • Martin Luther would begin the Reformation by proclaiming a list of abuses of the Catholic Church. • John Calvin’s writings would change the way Christianity was preached, and would persuade people away from the dogma taught by Catholicism. • Purely political reasons would lead Henry VIII to begin the reformation of the Church of England. He wanted a divorce from his wife, who was aunt to the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and the protector of all things Catholic. When the request was denied, Henry established himself as the head of the church and divorced her.
Queen Elizabeth I Shown here in her coronation robes, ca. 1559.
Challenges to the Spanish Empire • French Efforts • Garriano da Verrazano Verrazano explored the coast in 1524 • Jacques Cartier would make three voyages to establish colonies • Following the “solidification” of the Protestant Reformation, both England and France would turn their attention to the rise of Spanish power in the New World. • Garriano da Verrazano would attempt to discover a western passage through to India, to no avail. Jacques Cartier would explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada and would travel up the St. Lawrence River between Canada and New York. After that, the French became mired in religious wars and lost interest in the area.
Challenges to the Spanish Empire • Dutch Opposition to Spanish Control • Rebellion of the Netherlands • Dutch “Sea Beggars” • The Netherlands had passed to Spanish control and revolted against that rule in 1567. It would last until 1648. • During this time, Dutch privateers (pirates licensed by a nation-state), known as “Sea Beggars,” would attack the heavily laden Spanish Galleons returning from the New World loaded with gold and gems.
Challenges to the Spanish Empire • British Efforts to Subvert Spanish Control • Elizabeth’s “Sea Dogges”: John Hawkins and Francis Drake • Queen Elizabeth would actively work to subvert the policies of the Spanish, but not engage in actual warfare. She walked a fine line with her privateers, led by John Hawkins and Francis Drake.
Who were the first European explorers to rival Spanish dominance in the “New World,” and why did they cross the Atlantic? Why was the defeat of the Spanish Armada important to the history of English exploration? What was the significance of the voyages of Gilbert and Raleigh?
“The Invincible Armada” The Spanish Armada in a sixteenth-century English oil painting.
Challenges to the Spanish Empire • British Efforts to Subvert Spanish Control • The Spanish Armada • Perhaps Queen Elizabeth’s most dire threat to her throne came in the form of the Spanish Armada, which was dispatched in 1588 to defeat the British navy and remove Elizabeth as queen. The ”invincible” armada was destroyed in a storm on the way. With the armada thus defeated, England gained a free hand in establishing settlements in the New World.
The Arrival of the English in Virginia The arrival of English explorers on the Outer Banks, with Roanoke Island at left.
Challenges to the Spanish Empire • English Exploration • The Role of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh • The Lost Colony of Roanoke • Gilbert would secure a patent to establish a colony in the New World. After two failed attempts, he was lost at sea. His half-brother Raleigh established a colony in present-day North Carolina and then returned to England. When he returned three years later, the colony had vanished. Recent evidence has revealed that the colony experienced a severe drought during the time he was gone.
