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1. Gnosticism Discovery in Nag Hammadi
Gnosticism: main features
Valentinus & his system
2. Discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library Discovered in 1945 in a jar in Egypt
12 codices containing 52 writings
Major source of Gnostic texts
Sources: www.nag-hammadi.com;
Provenance: 1. A Gnostic community or possibly the Pachomian monastery of St. Palamon at Chenoboskeia, near Nag Hammadi (2nd half of 4th c. - ca. 400); 2. Buried in a jar in the sand and rock on the talus of the cliffs of Jabal al-Tarif (ca. 400-1945); 3. Mohammad and Khalifah Ali, al-Qasr (ancient Chenoboskeia) (1945); 4. Nashid Bisadah, Nag Hammadi (1946); 5. Nashid Bisadah and Masud Iskarus (jointly), Nag Hammadi (1946-1948); 6. Tawfiq, Cairo (1948); 7. Albert Eid, Cairo and Bruxelles (1948-1949); 8. Private collector and his heir, France (1949-1972); 9. The Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, California (1973-1994).
The discovery.
1945 Nag Hammadi library found.
12 codices (+ 8 leaves of the 13th codex) comprising 52 small tractates. Christians came to prefer codex to scrolls, because they were easier to use. Anyone who worked with microfilms will acknowledge that they are much harder than microfiches.
Greek texts in fairly loose translations from Coptic. We can tell this by comparing translations from Platos Republic.
Originally discovered in 1945 by Muhammad Ali found a jar while digging the ground at Nag Hammadi. Muhammad originally did not want to open the jar, for he thought it could be populated by a jinn. He subsequently changed his mind, since, as he reasoned, the jar could contain gold. He smashed the jar with his mattock and out came golden particles, neither gold, nor jinn, but, perhaps, papyrus pieces.
Six months prior to this discovery Muhammads father killed a marauder while watching the irrigation equipments at night. The same morning he was killed in vendetta by marauders clan.
A month later a peasant named Ahmad fell asleep while selling goods near Muhammads house. A friendly neighbor pointed out to Muhammad that this man was the murderer of his father. Muhammad wasted no time in deliberation. He called his seven brothers, they fell on the man, ripped out his limbs bit by bit, tore out his heart and devoured it in the ultimate fit of revenge. Ahmads brother avenged him by killing two members of Muhammads clan. Ten years later, Ahmads young son proved his manhood by sneaking into town and shooting up the procession with a score killed and wounded. Muhammad proudly shows a wound just above his heart. Why do I need to tell you all of this? Because after Ahmad was killed, police searched the house of Muhammad for guns. He gave the books to a local Coptic priest and it is from his house that the books will be subsequently brought to Cairo to be sold to various antiques dealers. The library was finally acquired by Coptic museum in Cairo, where it is today.
Sources: www.nag-hammadi.com;
Provenance: 1. A Gnostic community or possibly the Pachomian monastery of St. Palamon at Chenoboskeia, near Nag Hammadi (2nd half of 4th c. - ca. 400); 2. Buried in a jar in the sand and rock on the talus of the cliffs of Jabal al-Tarif (ca. 400-1945); 3. Mohammad and Khalifah Ali, al-Qasr (ancient Chenoboskeia) (1945); 4. Nashid Bisadah, Nag Hammadi (1946); 5. Nashid Bisadah and Masud Iskarus (jointly), Nag Hammadi (1946-1948); 6. Tawfiq, Cairo (1948); 7. Albert Eid, Cairo and Bruxelles (1948-1949); 8. Private collector and his heir, France (1949-1972); 9. The Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, California (1973-1994).
The discovery.
1945 Nag Hammadi library found.
12 codices (+ 8 leaves of the 13th codex) comprising 52 small tractates. Christians came to prefer codex to scrolls, because they were easier to use. Anyone who worked with microfilms will acknowledge that they are much harder than microfiches.
Greek texts in fairly loose translations from Coptic. We can tell this by comparing translations from Platos Republic.
Originally discovered in 1945 by Muhammad Ali found a jar while digging the ground at Nag Hammadi. Muhammad originally did not want to open the jar, for he thought it could be populated by a jinn. He subsequently changed his mind, since, as he reasoned, the jar could contain gold. He smashed the jar with his mattock and out came golden particles, neither gold, nor jinn, but, perhaps, papyrus pieces.
Six months prior to this discovery Muhammads father killed a marauder while watching the irrigation equipments at night. The same morning he was killed in vendetta by marauders clan.
A month later a peasant named Ahmad fell asleep while selling goods near Muhammads house. A friendly neighbor pointed out to Muhammad that this man was the murderer of his father. Muhammad wasted no time in deliberation. He called his seven brothers, they fell on the man, ripped out his limbs bit by bit, tore out his heart and devoured it in the ultimate fit of revenge. Ahmads brother avenged him by killing two members of Muhammads clan. Ten years later, Ahmads young son proved his manhood by sneaking into town and shooting up the procession with a score killed and wounded. Muhammad proudly shows a wound just above his heart. Why do I need to tell you all of this? Because after Ahmad was killed, police searched the house of Muhammad for guns. He gave the books to a local Coptic priest and it is from his house that the books will be subsequently brought to Cairo to be sold to various antiques dealers. The library was finally acquired by Coptic museum in Cairo, where it is today.
3. Main Features of Gnosticism Pick and choose attitude towards the Bible.
Example of Jesus seminar today. Vote on the historicity of the saying of Jesus with color beads
red: Thats Jesus!
Pink: Sure sounds like Jesus.
Gray: Well, maybe.
Black: Theres been some mistake.Pick and choose attitude towards the Bible.
Example of Jesus seminar today. Vote on the historicity of the saying of Jesus with color beads
red: Thats Jesus!
Pink: Sure sounds like Jesus.
Gray: Well, maybe.
Black: Theres been some mistake.
4. Valentinian Pleroma = Fullness (see ANF 31, pp. 198-201) Ungenerated Father (= Abyss= first aeon)
Sophia (= Wisdom = Mother) gave birth outside of the Pleroma to the imperfect creator (= Demiurge = Craftsman = Yaldabaoth) VALENTINUS.
Valentinus was the founder of Roman and Alexandrian schools of Gnosticism, an eclectic, dualistic system of religious doctrines postulating the evil origin of matter and the revelatory enlightenment, or gnosis, of an elite. Valentinus flourished 136-165 CE in Rome and Alexandria. Valentinian communities, by their expansion and long standing, provided a major challenge to 2nd and 3rd century Christian theology.
According to Irenaeus, Valentinus was a native of Egypt who studied philosophy at Alexandria. His disciples claimed that he had been educated by Theodas (or Theudas), a pupil of the apostle Paul. He moved to Rome c. 136 CE, during the time of Pope St. Hyginus, where he established a large school and spread his doctrines in the West. He claimed to have received revelations from the Logos in a vision. Later, aspiring to be elected bishop of Rome "on account of his intellectual force and eloquence", he was passed over, whereupon he seceded from the Church and moved away from Rome c. 140, perhaps to Cyprus.
Valentinus' system is an elaborate theogonic and cosmogonic epic. It describes in 3 acts the creation, fall, and the redemption; first in heaven, then on earth. The spiritual world or pleroma comprises 30 aeons forming a succession of syzygies (pairs). The visible world owes its origin to the fall of Sophia (wisdom), whose offspring, the Demiurge, is identified with the God of the Old Testament. Human beings belong to one of 3 classes, the spiritual people (pneumatikoi, or true Gnostics), those who merely posses a soul (psychikoi, or ordinary unenlightened church members), and the rest of humankind, who are made solely of matter (hylikoi) and are given over to eternal perdition.
Valentinus derived his system from Oriental and Greek speculations (including Pythagorean elements), from Christian ideals, and from his own fertile imagination. By employing fanciful exegesis he attached his own mythological speculations to apostolic words, such as Logos, Only Begotten, Truth, Pleroma, Aeons, and Ecclesia. The Valentinian system developed into Eastern and Western forms in greater complexity, although the earlier structure was similar to Pauline mystical theology, with its emphasis on the instrumentality of Christ's death and resurrection in effecting Christian deliverance.
VALENTINUS.
Valentinus was the founder of Roman and Alexandrian schools of Gnosticism, an eclectic, dualistic system of religious doctrines postulating the evil origin of matter and the revelatory enlightenment, or gnosis, of an elite. Valentinus flourished 136-165 CE in Rome and Alexandria. Valentinian communities, by their expansion and long standing, provided a major challenge to 2nd and 3rd century Christian theology.
According to Irenaeus, Valentinus was a native of Egypt who studied philosophy at Alexandria. His disciples claimed that he had been educated by Theodas (or Theudas), a pupil of the apostle Paul. He moved to Rome c. 136 CE, during the time of Pope St. Hyginus, where he established a large school and spread his doctrines in the West. He claimed to have received revelations from the Logos in a vision. Later, aspiring to be elected bishop of Rome "on account of his intellectual force and eloquence", he was passed over, whereupon he seceded from the Church and moved away from Rome c. 140, perhaps to Cyprus.
Valentinus' system is an elaborate theogonic and cosmogonic epic. It describes in 3 acts the creation, fall, and the redemption; first in heaven, then on earth. The spiritual world or pleroma comprises 30 aeons forming a succession of syzygies (pairs). The visible world owes its origin to the fall of Sophia (wisdom), whose offspring, the Demiurge, is identified with the God of the Old Testament. Human beings belong to one of 3 classes, the spiritual people (pneumatikoi, or true Gnostics), those who merely posses a soul (psychikoi, or ordinary unenlightened church members), and the rest of humankind, who are made solely of matter (hylikoi) and are given over to eternal perdition.
Valentinus derived his system from Oriental and Greek speculations (including Pythagorean elements), from Christian ideals, and from his own fertile imagination. By employing fanciful exegesis he attached his own mythological speculations to apostolic words, such as Logos, Only Begotten, Truth, Pleroma, Aeons, and Ecclesia. The Valentinian system developed into Eastern and Western forms in greater complexity, although the earlier structure was similar to Pauline mystical theology, with its emphasis on the instrumentality of Christ's death and resurrection in effecting Christian deliverance.
5. St. Irenaeus of Lyons Approx. 130-200 AD
Knew Stt. Polycarp & Justin
Bishop of Lyons
Wrote Against Haeresies ca. 180.
? Irenaeus (130-200) was a disciple of Polycarp of Smirna, the account of whose martyrdom we studied two weeks ago. Polycarp was 86 when he was martyred. He personally knew apostle John. He also knew Ignatius who was, acc. to tradition, that very boy who stood before Jesus. This is as close to Jesus as you can get.
? Irenaeus was a person who brought the letter of the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons to the church of Rome.
? Irenaeus possibly studied in Rome under Justin Martyr.
? Irenaeus (130-200) was a disciple of Polycarp of Smirna, the account of whose martyrdom we studied two weeks ago. Polycarp was 86 when he was martyred. He personally knew apostle John. He also knew Ignatius who was, acc. to tradition, that very boy who stood before Jesus. This is as close to Jesus as you can get.
? Irenaeus was a person who brought the letter of the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons to the church of Rome.
? Irenaeus possibly studied in Rome under Justin Martyr.
6. NT canon: stages of development Witnessing Jesus ministry
Preaching, teaching, and worshipping Jesus
Composition of the written materials
Proliferation of writings
Informal selection of writings
7. Proliferation of Apocrypha Gospels attributed to individual apostles or groups:
Peter, James, Philip, Thomas,Judas, Mary, pseudo-Matthew, Matthias, Bartholomew, the Twelve Apostles, Ebionites, Hebrews, Nazaraeans, Egyptians,
Gospels under general titles:
Perfection, Truth, the Four Heavenly Regions
Gospels attributed to heretics:
Cerinthus, Basilides, Marcion, Apelles, Bardesanes, Mani
Other apocryphal literature:
Apocryphon of: John, James; Apocalypse of John, Peter; Correspondence between Paul and Seneca; Shepherd of Hermas This literature was rejected because it did not agree with the apostolic tradition
Eusebius, HE 3.25.6-7:
Some have also counted [as canonical or recognized] the Gospel according to the Hebrews in which those of the Hebrews who have accepted Christ take a special pleasure. These [including those listed above] would all belong to the disputed books, but we have nevertheless been obliged to make a list of them, distinguishing between those writings which, according to tradition of the Church, are true, genuine, and recognized, and those which differ from them in that they are not canonical but disputed, yet nevertheless are known to most of the writers of the Church, in order that we might know them and the writings that are put forward by heretics under the name of the apostles containing gospels such as those of Peter, and Thomas, and Matthias, and some other besides, or Acts such as those of Andrew and John and the other apostles. To none of these has any who belonged to the succession of the orthodox ever thought it right to refer in his writings. Moreover, the type and phraseology differs from apostolic style, and the opinion and the tendency of their contents is widely dissonant from true orthodoxy and clearly shows that they are the forgeries of heretics. They ought, therefore, to be reckoned not even among spurious books but shunned as altogether wicked and impious.
A Non-Canonical Gospel Fragment. Egerton Papyrus 2. Egypt, 200 A.D.
Translation of the Text: to gather stones together [to stone] him. And the rulers laid their hands on him to [deliver] him to the crowd. But they were not able to arrest him since the hour of his being handed over had not yet come. But the Lord himself escaped from their hands and turned away from them. And behold, a leper coming to him, says: "Teacher Jesus, while traveling with lepers and eating together with them in the inn, I myself also became a leper. If therefore you will, I will be clean." And the Lord said to him: "I will, be clean." And immediately the leprosy left him. And Jesus said to him: "Go show yourself to the priests and offer concerning the purification as Moses commanded and sin no more [...]" Closest parallels:
This literature was rejected because it did not agree with the apostolic tradition
Eusebius, HE 3.25.6-7:
Some have also counted [as canonical or recognized] the Gospel according to the Hebrews in which those of the Hebrews who have accepted Christ take a special pleasure. These [including those listed above] would all belong to the disputed books, but we have nevertheless been obliged to make a list of them, distinguishing between those writings which, according to tradition of the Church, are true, genuine, and recognized, and those which differ from them in that they are not canonical but disputed, yet nevertheless are known to most of the writers of the Church, in order that we might know them and the writings that are put forward by heretics under the name of the apostles containing gospels such as those of Peter, and Thomas, and Matthias, and some other besides, or Acts such as those of Andrew and John and the other apostles. To none of these has any who belonged to the succession of the orthodox ever thought it right to refer in his writings. Moreover, the type and phraseology differs from apostolic style, and the opinion and the tendency of their contents is widely dissonant from true orthodoxy and clearly shows that they are the forgeries of heretics. They ought, therefore, to be reckoned not even among spurious books but shunned as altogether wicked and impious.
A Non-Canonical Gospel Fragment. Egerton Papyrus 2. Egypt, 200 A.D.
Translation of the Text: to gather stones together [to stone] him. And the rulers laid their hands on him to [deliver] him to the crowd. But they were not able to arrest him since the hour of his being handed over had not yet come. But the Lord himself escaped from their hands and turned away from them.And behold, a leper coming to him, says: "Teacher Jesus, while traveling with lepers and eating together with them in the inn, I myself also became a leper. If therefore you will, I will be clean."And the Lord said to him: "I will, be clean."And immediately the leprosy left him. And Jesus said to him: "Go show yourself to the priests and offer concerning the purification as Moses commanded and sin no more [...]"Closest parallels:
8. Irenaeus' contribution Four gospels, no less and no more
Four beasts of Ezekiel symbolizing the four evangelists Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. Luke-ox; John-lion; Mt-human being; Mk-eagle.
Irenaeus, Haer. 3.11.7: So firm is the ground upon which these Gospels rest that the very heretics themselves bear witness to them, and starting from them, each endeavors to establish his own peculiar doctrine. For the Ebionites use Matthews Gospel; Marcion mutilates that accordning to Luke.; those who separate Jesus from Christ [Docetists] prefer the Gospel of Mark; those who follow Valentinus make copious use of that according to John
Icon, Moscow, School of the Palace of the Armies, given to the cathedral of the Ascension of the unnamed monastery in the Kremlin of Moscow, c. 1680, tempera on wood, 180 x 140 cm, presently held in the Museums of the Kremlin in Moscow
Divine Paternity
Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. Luke-ox; John-lion; Mt-human being; Mk-eagle.
Irenaeus, Haer. 3.11.7: So firm is the ground upon which these Gospels rest that the very heretics themselves bear witness to them, and starting from them, each endeavors to establish his own peculiar doctrine. For the Ebionites use Matthews Gospel; Marcion mutilates that accordning to Luke.; those who separate Jesus from Christ [Docetists] prefer the Gospel of Mark; those who follow Valentinus make copious use of that according to John
Icon, Moscow, School of the Palace of the Armies, given to the cathedral of the Ascension of the unnamed monastery in the Kremlin of Moscow, c. 1680, tempera on wood, 180 x 140 cm, presently held in the Museums of the Kremlin in Moscow
Divine Paternity
9. NT canon: informal selection criteria Use in public worship & teaching.
Orthodoxy = agreement with the apostolic tradition and rule of faith).
Apostolicity = attributed to apostles or apostolic men.
Antiquity =belong to the apostolic age. 1 Thess 5: 27: I solemnly command you by the Lord that this letter be read to all of them. Colossians 4: 16: And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea. Pauls letters were accepted on the same level as OT scripture by 2 Pet 3: 15-16.
Ignatius, Philadelphians 8:2: To my mind it is Jesus Christ who is the original documents. The inviolable archives are hiscros and death an his resurrection, and the faith that came by him.
Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.4.2: Even if the apostles had not left their Writings to us, ought we not to follow the rule of the tradition which they handed down to those to whom they committed the churches? Many barbarian peoples who believe in Christ follow this rule, having [the message of their] salvation written on their hearts by the Spirit without paper and ink.
3. Apostolic authorship was not a necessary factor. Disputed books that eventually made it into the canon: James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, Revelation & Hebrews.
4. Tertullian distinguished between apostles John and Matthew, and Mark and Luke, who was not an apostle, but only an apostolic man; not a master, but a disciple, and so inferior to a master. Marc. 4.2.5.
4. Hermas rejected because relatively recent (2nd c): But Hermas wrote the Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the [episcopal] chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in the church either among the prophets, whose number is complete, or among the apostles, for it is after [their] time. Muratorian Fragment lines 73-74. Presupposes that the OT is closed and the NT is limited to the apostolic age.
MS in Greek on vellum and paper, Monastery of St. Stephanos, Cyprus, 1156, and 16th c. (text 3), 342 ff. (complete), 11 ff. paper (text 3), 23x17 cm, single column, (16x10 cm), 20 lines and 31 lines (text 3) in Greek minuscule by Manuel Hagiostephanites, scribe of Vatican Gospel Cod. Barb. gr. 449, in black and crimson, 4 pp. in crimson overlaid with gold, pericopes in gold, headings in display capitals in crimson and gold, small illuminated initials throughout, 3 large decorated and 1 historiated illuminated initials by Manuel Hagiostephanites. 4 half-page and 4 full-page miniatures of the Nicean school, very close to the St. Petersburg Gospels, Petropolitanus 105.
Binding: Greece, 16th c., calf over wooden boards, sewn on 4 cords. Traces of 4 round corner pieces and a large central cross.
Provenance: 1. Monastery of St. Stephanos, Cyprus (from 1156); 2. Monastery of Hagias, Andros, Greece, "Hagias 32" (before 1748 -after 1897); 3. Louis Birkigt Collection (until 1967); 4. Andr Cottet, Genve 10.11.1967:2; 5. H.P. Kraus cat. 159(1981):4.
Commentary: The earliest dated MS so far of the hitherto little known, but important, Nicean school of illumination is from 1269. This MS dated 1156 will necessitate a complete re-evaluation of the scholarship. The signed and dated colophon over 2 pp. includes a most unusual poem (text 2) dedicated to John of Crete, the first archbishop of Cyprus, and a well known author, who wrote under the pen name Neophytos Enkleistos. Aland 1361 and l. 2383, text category 5 (Byzantine recension).
Exhibited: Conference of European National Librarians, Oslo. Sept. 1994.
1 Thess 5: 27: I solemnly command you by the Lord that this letter be read to all of them. Colossians 4: 16: And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea. Pauls letters were accepted on the same level as OT scripture by 2 Pet 3: 15-16.
Ignatius, Philadelphians 8:2: To my mind it is Jesus Christ who is the original documents. The inviolable archives are hiscros and death an his resurrection, and the faith that came by him.
Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.4.2: Even if the apostles had not left their Writings to us, ought we not to follow the rule of the tradition which they handed down to those to whom they committed the churches? Many barbarian peoples who believe in Christ follow this rule, having [the message of their] salvation written on their hearts by the Spirit without paper and ink.
3. Apostolic authorship was not a necessary factor. Disputed books that eventually made it into the canon: James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, Revelation & Hebrews.
4. Tertullian distinguished between apostles John and Matthew, and Mark and Luke, who was not an apostle, but only an apostolic man; not a master, but a disciple, and so inferior to a master. Marc. 4.2.5.
4. Hermas rejected because relatively recent (2nd c): But Hermas wrote the Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the [episcopal] chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in the church either among the prophets, whose number is complete, or among the apostles, for it is after [their] time. Muratorian Fragment lines 73-74. Presupposes that the OT is closed and the NT is limited to the apostolic age.
MS in Greek on vellum and paper, Monastery of St. Stephanos, Cyprus, 1156, and 16th c. (text 3), 342 ff. (complete), 11 ff. paper (text 3), 23x17 cm, single column, (16x10 cm), 20 lines and 31 lines (text 3) in Greek minuscule by Manuel Hagiostephanites, scribe of Vatican Gospel Cod. Barb. gr. 449, in black and crimson, 4 pp. in crimson overlaid with gold, pericopes in gold, headings in display capitals in crimson and gold, small illuminated initials throughout, 3 large decorated and 1 historiated illuminated initials by Manuel Hagiostephanites. 4 half-page and 4 full-page miniatures of the Nicean school, very close to the St. Petersburg Gospels, Petropolitanus 105.
Binding: Greece, 16th c., calf over wooden boards, sewn on 4 cords. Traces of 4 round corner pieces and a large central cross.
Provenance: 1. Monastery of St. Stephanos, Cyprus (from 1156); 2. Monastery of Hagias, Andros, Greece, "Hagias 32" (before 1748 -after 1897); 3. Louis Birkigt Collection (until 1967); 4. Andr Cottet, Genve 10.11.1967:2; 5. H.P. Kraus cat. 159(1981):4.
Commentary: The earliest dated MS so far of the hitherto little known, but important, Nicean school of illumination is from 1269. This MS dated 1156 will necessitate a complete re-evaluation of the scholarship. The signed and dated colophon over 2 pp. includes a most unusual poem (text 2) dedicated to John of Crete, the first archbishop of Cyprus, and a well known author, who wrote under the pen name Neophytos Enkleistos. Aland 1361 and l. 2383, text category 5 (Byzantine recension).
Exhibited: Conference of European National Librarians, Oslo. Sept. 1994.
10. Timeline 3rd c. B.C.E. Septuagint. Started under Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BCE) in Alexandria.
end of 1st c. C.E. Council of Javneh: Jewish canon closed with 39 books.
NT canon:
50ies: Pauline Epistles. Paul died ca. 60.
60ies-early 70ies: Gospel of Mark.
80ies: Gospels of Matthew and Luke.
90ies: Gospel of John and the rest of the canon.
140ies Marcion produced his own canon.
170ies Tatian published his Diatessaron.
180ies Irenaeus endorsed the four gospels.
200 ( or 4th c?): Muratorian canon. Some Gnostic Gospels and apocrypha rejected.
367: The first full list of the 27 NT writings mentioned in letter of Athanasius of Alexandria
Ravenna: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Ravenna, 5th c. Four gospel codices in armarium (bookcase).
Muratorian canon: Though various rudiments (or: tendencies?) are taught in the several Gospel books, yet that matters nothing for the faith of believers, since by the one and guiding (original?) Spirit everything is declared in all.
Ravenna: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Ravenna, 5th c. Four gospel codices in armarium (bookcase).
Muratorian canon: Though various rudiments (or: tendencies?) are taught in the several Gospel books, yet that matters nothing for the faith of believers, since by the one and guiding (original?) Spirit everything is declared in all.
