Literary Theories

Literary Theories The Basics of Criticism

The Basic Idea • The point of criticism is to argue your point of view on a work of literature. • You have to analyze a text and support your assertions with specific evidence from experts and the text.

The Basic Idea • A critical analysis is an in-depth examination of some aspect of the literary work • you may examine any element of the text: character development, conflicts, narrative point of view, etc. • Even though it’s an examination of a literary work, it’s still a persuasive essay

The Basic Idea • The goal is to prove something about the work • There must be a point to the discussion. • You must answer the questions Why?, or So what? • For example, why is a recurring symbol important? Or, why is the development of the female characters significant?

The Basic Idea • There are many different approaches we can take to critical analysis • Literary theories provide a framework for our discussion of a text • We don’t have to identify the theory we’re using, though. • We use it as a starting point for our own ideas and opinions

Historical/Biographical Approach • views literature as the reflection of an author's life and times (or of the characters' life and times). • it is necessary to know about the author and the political, economical, and/or sociological context of his times in order to truly understand his works.

Historical/Biographical Approach Advantages: • works well for some which are obviously political or biographical in nature. • places allusions in their proper classical, political, or biblical background. Disadvantages: • requires knowledge about the historical/biographical context • can easily turn into a meaningless list of similarities

“The Intentional Fallacy" • The assumption that the author’s intention matters • Most scholars reject the importance of the author’s intention • What matters is what makes it onto the page • Be careful about assuming the author’s intentions!

Application • What are some historical or biographical elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Moral / Philosophical Approach: • asserts that the larger purpose of literature is to teach morality and to probe philosophical issues • authors intend to instruct the audience in some way

Moral / Philosophical Approach: • Moral approach: deals with lessons on how we live • Philosophical approach: deals with issues of why we live • Ask questions like “Who am I?” “What is my purpose?” “What is my place in the world?”

Moral / Philosophical Approach: Advantages: • useful when considering the themes of works • does not view literature merely as "art" isolated from all moral implications • recognizes that literature can affect readers and that the message of a work is important.

Moral / Philosophical Approach: Disadvantages: • such an approach can be too "judgmental" • Students can get sidetracked by the lesson rather than focusing on their own argument

Application • What are some moral or philosophical elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Formalism / New Criticism • involves a close reading of the text • all information essential to the interpretation of a work must be found within the work itself • focuses on analyzing irony, paradox, imagery, and metaphor • also interested in the work's setting, characters, symbols, and point of view.

Formalism / New Criticism • no need to bring in outside information about the history, politics, or society of the time, or about the author's life • does not view works through the lens of feminism, psychology, mythology, or any other such standpoint • not interested in the work's affect on the reader.

Formalism / New Criticism Terms Used in New Criticism: • intentional fallacy - the false belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by the author's intention • affective fallacy - the false belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by its affect on the reader • external form - rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form, etc.

Formalism / New Criticism Advantages: • can be performed without much research • emphasizes the value of literature apart from its context • virtually all critical approaches must begin here Disadvantages: • text is seen in isolation • ignores the context of the work • cannot account for allusions

Application • What are some formal elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Psychoanalytical Approach • views works through the lens of psychology • looks either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves • most frequently applies Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches also exist.

Freudian Approach to Personality Three parts to an individual’s psyche: • the id: the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind • the superego: the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses • the ego: the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way

Sex is Everything Freud believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality • Oedipus complex: a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother • Electra complex: a girl’s unconscious rivalry with her mother for the love of her father (a.k.a. “daddy issues”)

Freudian Imagery Recognizes symbols that are linked to sexual pleasure • concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols • phallic symbols, objects that are longer than they are wide, are male images • dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure • water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish.

Psychoanalytical Approach Advantages: • can be a useful tool for understanding some works in which characters obviously have psychological issue • knowing something about a writer's psychological make-up can give us insight into his work. Disadvantages: • can turn a work into a psychological case study • sometimes attempts to diagnose long dead authors based on their works • tends to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature • some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.

Application • What are some psychological or psychoanalytical elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Archetypal Approach • assumes that there is a collection of symbols, images, characters, and motifs (i.e. archetypes) that evokes basically the same response in all people • identifies these patterns and discusses how they function in the works • asserts that these archetypes are the source of much of literature's power.

Archetypal Approach • based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung • he states that mankind possesses a "collective unconscious" that contains these archetypes and that is common to all of humanity

Some Archetypes • archetypal women - the Good Wife/Mother, the Terrible Mother, the Virgin (often a Damsel in Distress), and the Fallen Woman. • water - creation, birth-death-resurrection, purification, redemption, fertility, growth • garden - paradise (Eden), innocence, fertility • desert - spiritual emptiness, death, hopelessness • red - blood, sacrifice, passion, disorder • green - growth, fertility • black - chaos, death, evil • serpent - evil, sensuality, mystery, wisdom, destruction • seven - perfection • hero archetype - The hero is involved in a quest (in which he overcomes obstacles). He experiences initiation (involving a separation, transformation, and return), and finally he serves as a scapegoat, that is, he dies to atone.

Archetypal Approach Advantages: • provides a universalistic approach to literature and identifies a reason why certain literature may survive the test of time • it works well with works that are highly symbolic Disadvantages: • literature may become a vehicle for archetypes • may ignore the "art" of literature

Application • What are some archetypal elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Feminist Approach • concerned with the impact of gender on writing and reading • usually begins with a critique of patriarchal culture • concerned with the place of female writers • concerned with the roles of female characters within works • often argues that male fears are portrayed through female characters • may argue that gender determines everything, or just the opposite: that all gender differences are imposed by society, and gender determines nothing.

Stages of Female Identity • Feminine: the female accepts the definitions and roles male authorities have created for her • Feminist: rebels against male authority and intentionally challenges all male definitions and roles • Female: no longer concerned with male definitions or restrictions; defines her own voice and values

The Mad-Woman in the Attic • Critics Gilbert and Gubar identify a pattern in the treatment of female characters in literature, even when written by women. • based on the plot of Jane Eyre • the practice of removing a female character who is no longer useful to the male characters

Feminist Approach Advantages: • redresses the problem of under representation • seeks to provide a more realistic portrayal of women within a text • examines the power struggle between the sexes. Disadvantages: • can turn literary criticism into a political battlefield • can overlook the merits of works they consider "patriarchal"

Application • What are some gender-based elements we might examine in a discussion of our current novel?

Reader Response Criticism • analyzes the reader's role in the production of meaning • lies at the opposite end of the spectrum from formalism • the text itself has no meaning until it is read by a reader • The reader creates the meaning. • can take into account the strategies employed by the author to elicit a certain response from readers • denies the possibility that works are universal (i.e. that they will always mean more or less the same thing to readers everywhere) • makes someone's reading a function of personal identity.

Reader Response Criticism Advantages: • recognizes that different people view works differently and that people's interpretations change over time. Disadvantages: • tends to make interpretation too subjective • does not provide adequate criteria for evaluating one reading in comparison to another

Application • What are your personal responses to this novel? • Are there certain elements you respond to strongly or with which you identify?

Marxist Approach • Karl Marx perceived human history to have consisted of a series of struggles between classes--between the oppressed and the oppressing. • Marx thought that materialism was the ultimate driving force in history, a notion involving the distribution of resources, gain, and production

Marxist Approach • Feudalism exploits workers to the point of revolt • This leads to bourgeois capitalism • In bourgeois capitalism, the privileged bourgeoisie rely on the working proletariat • Workers are exploited to the point of revolt

Marxist Approach • The successful working class will then establish a communist society • In this ideal the labor, the means of production, and the profits are shared by all • This system is an attempt at complete social and economic equality • It’s a great theory but doesn’t work in reality

Marxist Approach • Marxist criticism examines the nature of power structures within a novel. • It asks questions like: Who has power? Who lacks power? Who is exploited by whom and why? How does power remain constant or shift throughout a work of literature? What makes certain characters powerful or powerless?

Marxist Approach • It also examines commodities, possessions that give power • Typical commodities are things like land and money but can also be things like social position, knowledge, or even a person • Marxist criticism can also examine what commodities bring power and why within a work of literature

Literary Theories