The Stages of the Writing Process

1. The Stages of the Writing Process • Planning Planning is a series of strategies designed to find and formulate information in writing. It helps you uncover, explore and evaluate a topic. It helps you locate and produce information in writing. • Learn how to approach assignments.

2. Write about a question. • To develop questions, play the I wonder/They say/I think game: • I wonder: Taking the subject matter of the course or the assignment as your point of departure, list concepts and issues that you wonder about. • They say: Reviewing your class notes, course reading, online postings to discussion groups, and scholarly bibliographies, check to see what topics and issues others in the field say are important. Jot down relevant information, ideas, and issues.

3. I think: Choosing an item or two that you have listed, figure out what you think about it, and consider what purposes you might fulfill by writing about it. Give your curiosity free rein. Connect your interests to the framework of the course. 2) Ask questions about your audience.

4. Here are the questions to answer about your audience: • What are the demographics of this audience? What is the educational level, social status, occupation, gender, and ethnicity of a typical audience member? • What common assumptions and differences of opinion do these readers bring to the issue? • What images do they have, what ideas do they hold, and what actions do they support? • What is your goal in writing for this audience? Do you want to intensify, clarify, complicate, or change their assumptions and opinions?

5. 3) Be clear about your purpose. Informing: writing to transmit knowledge. Terms like classify, illustrate, report, and survey are often associated with the task of informing. Interpreting: writing to produce understanding. Terms like analyze, compare, explain, and reflect are more likely to appear when the purpose is interpreting.

6. Arguing: writing to state and negotiate matters of public debate. Agree, assess, defend, and refute go with the task of arguing. 4) Select the appropriate genre. Genre simply means kind of writing. Different genres of writing predominate in different discipline. an informative genre an interpretative genre an argumentative genre

7. 5) Use appropriate language. 6) Choose an appropriatevoice. • Examples: • Tobin originally planned his news conference for Wednesday but postponed it out of respect for Valley sports journalist Steve Schoenfeld, who was killed Tuesday night in a hit-and-run accident in downtown Tempe. • Steve Schoenfeld probably would find it amusing that the NFL plans to honor him with a moment of silence in press boxes before games on Sunday and Monday. He was hardly ever quiet in the press box or anywhere else.

8. Different writing situations and assignments require different voices. Stance: where you stand in relation to your audience and your subject Readers tend to be most comfortable with an even tone of voice, a style that values the middle and avoids the extremes of the impersonal or the intimate, the long-winded or the curt, and the stuffy or the casual.

9. Stuffy The epistolary mode of literary expression has assumed numerous distinctive guises since its original manifestation more than four thousand years ago in the cuneiform inscriptions of ancient Sumer. Casual Letters have been around for a really long time.

10. Appropriate As Kany points out, epistolary academic writing has flourished ever voice since it first emerged among the Sumerians.

11. 2. Explore your ideas. 1) List (an example) Here is a list a student produced on the topic of work. Work---what is it? Skilled/unskilled Most jobs today in service industries work and retirement (continued)

12. My dad’s retired, but has he stopped working? If you never want to retire, is your job still considered work? Jobs I have had: babysitter, camp counselor, salesclerk, office worker---I’d be happy to retire from those, especially the salesclerk job Standing all day Do this, do that. Do it over and over again. Difference between work and career (continued)

13. I want a career, not a job Dress for success High-powered lunches, late dinner Travel Making presentations Pressure Making decisions Big house Fast car

14. 2) Freewrite (an example) The following is a student’s freewriting on the topic of work. I want to talk about the difference between a job and work---between a job and a career. If you don’t get paid, is it work? If it is, what’s the difference between work and play? There are some things I would only do for money---like work as a waiter. But there are other things I would do even if it weren’t paid—garden or ride my bike or play with kids. The trick is to find a career that would allow me to get paid for doing those things.

15. 3) Question (an example) • In terms of age, gender, and ethnicity, who is working in the new cyberspace infotainment industry? • What are the working conditions, benefits, and job security of those employed in the current U.S. service economy? • Where are all the manufacturing jobs these days? • When is it best for people to retire from jobs? • Why are so many U.S. businesses “downsizing”? • How do people prepare themselves for career changes?

16. 4) Some other frequently used strategies to explore ideas A. Cluster B. Review annotated texts and journal entries C. Browse in the library D. Surf the Net E. Exchange ideas

17. Practice Use the strategy of listing to write on the topic “A Teacher” for fifteen minutes.

18. Drafting Drafting is a series of strategies designed to organize and develop a sustained piece of writing. 1. Develop your thesis Your first goal in drafting is to develop a preliminary thesis---a working thesis---that fits your audience, makes a difference to readers, and addresses a specific issue.

19. Writing critically begins with a clear, forceful thesis statement. Not all theses can be stated in one sentence, but all strong theses are suitable, significant,, and specific. • Make sure your thesis is suitable. The following theses are on the same topic, but each is for a paper with a different purpose. Thesis to inform In terms of income and wealth, the gap between rich and poor has increased substantially during the past decade.

20. Thesis to interpret The economic ideas George Will expresses in “Healthy Inequality” are politically conservative. Thesis to argue George Will’s argument that economic inequality is healthy for the United States depends on two false analogies.

21. 2) Make sure your thesis is significant. 3) Make sure your thesis is specific. Examples: Too vague The gap between rich and poor has increased, and that’s bad.

22. Specific George Will’s argument that economic inequality is healthy for the United States should not be accepted. His interpretation of the recent increase in income inequality is questionable. His reasoning about history is flawed. Above all, his idea of what is healthy is too narrow. Practice Determine your thesis/theme on the basis of what you have written about the topic “A Teacher”.

23. A Teacher a familiar teacher Prof. Wang very knowledgeable capable. explains his points fully speaks loudly and clearly

24. gives full attention to students’ questions answers students’ questions carefully tells jokes to hold students’ attention responsible always gives assignment schedule ahead of time lends books to students always punctual to class returns papers and tests promptly at times criticizes students severely

25. Prof. Wang is a good teacher. Prof. Wang is a capable teacher. Prof. Wang is a responsible teacher. 2. Prepare an Outline A. Types of Outline --- sentence outline ----topic outline

26. Two samples of topic outline A  A college education has several advantages for young people. (Topic Sentence) A. To train in professional skills B. To develop powers of reasoning, analysis, and judgment C. To expand cultural background

27. B  I had a wonderful summer afternoon. A. Clear blue sky B. Singing larks C. Perfect peace

28. Two samples of sentence outline A For hundreds of years, man has made use of the monkeys. A. Baboons gathered fruit for the Egyptians in 2000 B.C. B. Monkeys were used as torchbearers in 1879 in Abyssinia.

29. B  Trade in commodities (visible trade) is necessary between nations. A. No nation has all the commodities it needs. B. A nation may not have enough of certain commodities. C. A nation may sell certain items at a profit. D. Latest innovations and different styles of commodities may make foreign trade necessary. All nations strive to maintain a favorable balance of trade so as to be assured of the means to buy necessary goods. (Concluding Sentence)

30. B. Rules for Writing Outlines ---Arrange our points in good order and number them in a parallel form. Let’s compare the following correct and incorrect forms of outlines.

31. Incorrect (outline) I made preparations for a trip to the United States. 1. Getting the necessary documents 2. Passport 3. Visa 4. Making financial arrangements 5. Buying clothes 6. Taking care of medical requirements 7. Purchasing the ticket for the trip 8. Packing bags 9. Suitcases 10. Baggage

32. Correct (outline) I made preparations for a trip to the United States. 1. Getting the necessary documents A. Passport B. Visa 2. Making financial arrangements 3. Buying clothes 4. Taking care of medical requirements 5. Purchasing the ticket for the trip 6. Packing bags A. Suitcases B. Baggage

33. ---Avoid mixed types of outline Incorrect Correct Rocks make excellent pets. Rocks make excellent pets. A. They don't eat. A. They don’t eat. B. Cleanliness. B. They are clean. C. Obedient. C. They are obedient.

34. ---Do not use questions in our outline Incorrect How did the letter affect the family? A. The father cried. B. The eldest son jumped to his feet. C. The infant boy wept. D. What did the others do?

35. Correct How the letter affected the family. A. The father cried. B. The eldest son jumped to his feet. C. The infant boy wept. D. What the others did.

36. The thesis is a complete declarative sentence, usually in the affirmative. It is not a question, a phrase, or a dependent clause, but one sentence which expresses our controlling idea. Summary: We should avoid single subdivisions; avoid mixing sentences and phrases in an outline; make sure that subheads of the same rank are of equal importance, are related to the headings I, II, and III, and are arranged in logical order; and always write the thesis in one complete sentence.

37. Here is the conventional format for a formal outline. Topic/ Thesis: I. First subtopic or point A. First supporting idea 1. First specific detail 2. Second specific detail B. Second supporting idea 1. First specific detail 2. Second specific detail a. First part of specific detail b. second part of specific detail (continued)

38. II. Second subtopic or point A. First supporting idea 1. First specific detail 2. Second specific detail B. Second supporting idea 1. First specific detail 2. Second specific detail C. Third supporting idea

39. 3. Develop your ideas. When you develop ideas, you move your writing forward by giving it texture and depth. The following strategies are helpful ways to develop the ideas that support your thesis into a complete draft. • Narration 6) Comparison and contrast • Description 7) Analogy • Classification 8) Process • Definition 9) Cause and effect • Illustration

40. 4. Write purposeful paragraphs that are unified, coherent, and well developed. Readers expect a piece of writing to be divided into paragraphs that express a thought or point relevant to the whole piece. Introductory and concluding paragraphs have special functions in a piece of writing, but all paragraphs should have sufficient development (level of detail), unity (a single, clear focus), and coherence (internal connections).

41. 1) Introductions and conclusions (repeat briefly) 2) Paragraph development Example: The following draft paragraph was written by a student. Note how the writer developed his draft paragraph, adding details and examples to make his argument more clearly and effectively. First draft A 1913 advertisement for Shredded Wheat illustrates Kellner’s claim that advertisements sell self-images. The ad suggests that serving Shredded Wheat will give women the same sense of accomplishment as gaining the right to vote.

42. Revision According to Kellner, “advertising is as concerned with selling lifestyles and socially desirable identities…as with selling the products themselves” (193). A 1913 ad for Shredded Wheat shows how the selling of self-images works. At first glance, this ad seems to be promoting the women’s suffrage movement. In big, bold letters, “Votes for women” is emblazoned across the top of the ad. (continued)

43. But a closer look reveals that the ad is for Shredded Wheat cereal. Holding a piece of the cereal in her hand, a woman stands behind a large bowlful of Shredded Wheat biscuits that is made to look like a voting box. The text claims that “every biscuit is a vote for health, happiness and domestic freedom.” Like the rest of the advertisement, this claim suggests that serving Shredded Wheat will give women the same sense of accomplishment as gaining the right to vote.

44. 3) Paragraph unity Compare the first draft of the following paragraph with its revision, and note how the addition of a topic sentence (in bold in the revision) makes the paragraph more clearly focused and therefore easier for the writer to revise further. Note also that the writer deleted ideas that did not directly relate to the paragraph’s main point (underlined in the first draft):

45. First draft Germany is ranked first on worldwide production levels. Automobiles, aircraft, and electronic equipment are among Germany’s most important products for export. As the standard of living of the citizens of what was formerly East Germany increases due to reunification, their purchasing power and productivity will increase. A major problem is that east Germany is not as productive or efficient as west Germany, and so it would be better if less money were invested in the east. (continued)

46. Germany is involved in most global treaties that protect business interests, and intellectual property is well protected. A plus for potential ventures and production plans is its highly skilled workforce. Another factor that indicates that Germany will remain strong in the arena of productivity and trade is its physical locations in the world. (continued)

47. “Its terrain and geographical position have combined to make Germany an important crossroads for traffic between the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. International transportation routes pass through all of Germany,” thus utilizing a comprehensive and efficient network of transportation, both on land and over water (“Germany,” 1995, p. 185). Business can operate plants in Germany and have no difficulties transporting goods and services to other parts of the country. (continued)

48. Generally, private enterprise, government, banks, and unions cooperate, making the country more amenable to negotiations for business entry or joint ventures. (end)

49. Revision For many reasons, Germany is attractive both as a market for other nations and as a location for production. As the standard of living of the citizens of what was formerly East Germany increases due to reunification, their purchasing power and productivity will increase. Intellectual property is well protected, and Germany is involved in most global treaties that protect business interests. Germany’s highly skilled workforce is another plus for potential ventures and production plans. (continued)

50. Generally, private enterprise, government, banks, and unions cooperate, making the country more amenable to negotiations for business entry or joint ventures. Germany also has an excellent physical locations that makes it an “an important crossroads for traffic between the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. (“Germany,” 1995, p. 185) Equally important, a comprehensive and efficient network of transportation system allows businesses to operate plants in Germany and easily transport goods and services to other parts of the country and the world. (end)