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"A stench from its inky surface putrescent with the oxidizing processes to which the shadows of the overreaching trees add stygian blackness and the suggestion of some mythological river of death. With this burden of filth the purifying agencies of the stream are prostrated; it lodges against obstruction in the stream and rots, becoming hatcheries for mosquitoes and malaria. A thing of beauty is thus transformed into one of hideous danger." Texas Department of Health 1925"There are three kinds of lies. Lies, damned lies, and statistics!" Mark TwainUnder carefully controlled laboratory conditions an organism does what it damn well pleases. Harvard Law"What's the use of their having names", the gnat said, "if they won't answer to them?""No use to them," said Alice; "but it's useful the people who name them, I suppose.“ Through the Looking Glass – Lewis Carroll
Cyclomorphosis Cyclomorphosis is, as the name indicates is a cyclic change in body form. This occurs primarily in female lemnetic species such as Daphnia pulex and Daphnia rosea. A population of cyclomorphic species has a homogeneous “normal”or rounded head, form in the fall, winter and early spring. As the water becomes warmer the populations develops, however, there is a commonly progressive increase in the longitudinal axis produced by a general elongation of the head and the appearance of a “helmet”. Characteristically, the helmets become fully developed by midsummer, when they may be quite bizzarre. Beginning in late summer or early autumn, the morphology of the head progressively reverts so that the “normal” condition prevails by late autumn. In the words of Coker (1939), “The changes in form are not simple functions of external conditions or of any inherent cycle, but rather of a combination of internal and external conditions in a way that becomes exceedingly baffling the more we know about it.” Theories about helmet shapes: Under conditions of low dissolved oxygen Cladocera often produce hemoglobin to facilitate the transfer of oxygen. Studies have been done which strongly suggest that given the choices of red/pink Cladocera and a normal colored Cladocera, fish choose the red/pink Cladocera. There would therefore appear to be a selective disadvantage to becoming red/pink. One theory suggests that the increased size of the helmet of Cladocera functions to increase surface area over which oxygen can be extracted from the water and therefore changing helmet dimensions would be a function of reduced dissolved oxygen. Another theory suggests that as the water temperature increases the density of the water decreases and therefore animals such as Cladocera have to expend more energy to keep from sinking. Since the food of the cladocerans is mostly algae and since algae live near the surface, decreasing the amount of energy necessary to stay higher in the water column would be a selective advantage. One way to counter the tendency to sink would be to increase the helmet dimensions.
Normal helmet shape for fall, winter , spring D-H are all Daphnia retrocurva
Poikilotherm – having a body temperature that varies with the environment, cold blooded as are amphibians, reptiles, fishes, insects Homiotherm – having a constant body temperature, warm-blooded as are mammals and birds Q10 law or VanHoft’s Law which states that a doubling of temperature between 10 and 20 ºC increases the metabolic rate by 2 fold. Inverse metabolic rate law – the smaller the organism the greater the metabolic rate on a per gram basis. Therefore, it takes more energy to support 10, 1 gram organisms than it does 1, 10 gram organism. If a rhinoceros had the metabolic rate of a mouse it would have to endure boiling temperature at its surface in order to dissipate heat generated as a result of metabolic processes. Physoclist, physostome, no gas bladder Diurnal Diel Nocturnal
At 25 °C and well fed a female Ceriodaphnia dubia will have its first brood (4 to 6 neonates)on day 4 after its release from the brood pouch. On day 5 it will have a second brood (7 to 10 neonates) and on day 7 it will have its third brood (15 to 20 neonates) All of these offspring will be female unless something happens to induce the sexual part of cyclic parthenogenesis. Food Obligate filter feeders
Eye spots Embryo +11.5 Hours
Compound eye Ocellus or simple eye First antennae First Antennae of Female Ceriodaphnia dubia
ephippium Embryo – resting egg Ephippium With Resting Egg
Densities so great they form windrows along the shoreline of lakes. Ephippia
Sampling Devices Ekman Dredge Ponar Dredge Surber Sampler Kick Net ½ meter net – macrozooplankton Microzooplankton closing net Artificial Substrates Diatometer
Distributions clumped random
Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation and Confidence Limits Data Set 1 Data Set 2 10 5 10 80 10 0 10 1 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 7 10 3 10 4 Total 100 100 n 10 10 Ave 10 10 Variance 0 611 St. Dev 0 24.7 C.I. 10+/-0 10+/-17.8 Variance = (xi2)- (xi)2/n Standard Deviation (St. Dev) = square root of the variance Confidence Interval (CI) = Mean tvalue (St. Dev.) The t value is chosen based on sample size and or probability level t value for 95% Confidence Interval and n=10 is 2.262 n-1 n
1-/2 n-1 d.f. If = 0.05
Data Set 3 10 12 14 17 28 2 6 21 10 15 Calculate the mean, variance standard deviation and 95% Confidence limits for Data Set 3 T value for n-1 degrees freedom 2.262 Mean = 13.5 Variance (s2) = 55.17 Standard deviation = 7.43 Mean 5.3 (13.5 5.3) If you have an n of more than one you can calculate a mean and confidence intervals about the mean
Data Set 4 30 56 18 22 4 12 15 22 11 19 Calculate the mean, variance standard deviation and 95% Confidence limits for Data Set 3 T value for n-1 degrees freedom 2.262 Mean = 20.9 Variance (s2) = 134 Standard deviation = 11.6 Mean 20.9 (20.9 8.2) If you have an n of more than one you can calculate a mean and confidence intervals about the mean
1000 0 Failing to reject the null hypothesis does not mean that there is not a difference!!!! Ho: There is no difference in the mean number of benthic organisms above and below the outall. Ha: There is a difference in the mean number of benthic organisms above and below the outfall.
Correlation and Regression The purpose of correlation analysis is to measure the intensity of association observed between any pair of variables and to test whether the association is greater than can be due to chance alone. Once established, such an association is likely to lead to reasoning about causal relationships between variables. Students of statistics are told at an early stage not to confuse significant correlation with causation. Regression deals primarily with the means of one variable and how their location is influenced by another variable. Regression comes close to implying cause and effect relationships. Thus, where a correlation coefficient tells us something about a joint relationship between variables, a regression coefficient tells us that if we alter the value of the independent variable then we can expect the dependent variable to alter by a certain amount on average. The correlation coefficient r can range between -1 and +1 and the value of r tells us something about the degree of relationship between the two variables. The coefficient of determination r2 used in regression analysis (the square of the correlation coefficient) tells us how much of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by its association with the independent variable. An r2 of 0.90 indicates that 90% of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by its relationship with the independent variable. In a sample size of 200, an r of 0.2 would be significant at the 1% level of significance, but it would only indicate that 4% of the variation in Y could be explained by its relationship with the X variable. A verdict of statistical significance shows merely that there is a linear relationship with a non-zero slope. It tells us nothing about the importance of the relationship.
Mid-Term Grade Distribution Maximum possible points at this time is 360. Maximum accumulated points at this time is 356.5, therefore there is a curve of 3.5 points at this time. This does not include any of the laboratory grade. To get an A you need to accumulate 486 points, B 432 points; C 378 points. The total number of points possible is 540.
Animal Control Russia Genetics Shakespeare Eugene Schiefflein Passer domesticus Aggresive Acclimatizers Insectivorous Coevolution Wolf Lymantria dispar Polyploidy Fungi Bank Stabilization • Pretty Flowers weevil Invasion Prolific Solenopsis sp. Evapotranspiration Mongoose Tamarisk Control Sturnus vulgaris Argentina Brazil Menu Conroe China Dieldrin Table decorations Coyote Jackrabbit Wild Currants Dimilin Henry IV Gypsy Moth White amur Gooseberries Mongoose Professor Ettiene Leopold Trouvelot Japan Bombyx mori Agent Orange
dichotomous key Lepomis megalotis Operculum Operculum Lepomis cyanellus
Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) It is the first of February, and everyone is talking about starlings. Starlings came to this country on a passenger liner from Europe. One hundred of them were deliberately released in Central Park. According to Edwin Way Teale, their coming was the result of one man’s fancy. That man was Eugene Schieffelin, a wealthy New York drug manufacturer. Schieffelin formed a club called The American Acclimatization Society who had as their goal the introduction into the US all the birds mentioned by William Shakespeare. The birds were released in Central Park in New York and first nested under the eaves of the Northwest wing of the Museum of Natural History. The birds acclimated splendidly, in less than 60 years the 100 or so birds released into Central Park increased to more than a million and by 1954 had reached Alaska. “The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer. But I will find him when he is asleep, and in his ear I’ll holler ‘Mortimer!’ Nay I’ll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer, and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion” was the only line in Henry IV that provoked such a reckless act. These birds are controlled in England and other parts of Europe by the normal array of competitors, predators and diseases with which the bird evolved. These controls were not present in the US so the bird spread rapidly, and out competed many of our native birds. You’ll begin to hear pneumatic cannons on our campus a little later in the spring as attempts are made to drive off the starlings and boat tailed grackle that roost on our campus. Anne Dillard in her book Pilgrim at Tinker Creek writes, “Starlings are notoriously difficult to “control”. The story is told of a man who was bothered by starlings roosting in a large sycamore tree near his house. He said he tried everything to get rid of them and finally took a shotgun to them killing three. When asked if that discouraged the birds, he reflected a minute, leaned forward, and said confidently, ‘Those three it did.’
Roosting in hordes of up to a million , starlings can devour vast stores of seed and fruit, offsetting whatever benefit they confer by eating insects. In a single day, a cloud of omnivorous starlings can gobble up 20 tons of potatoes. In 1960 a Lockheed Electra plummeted seconds after taking off from Logan Airport in Boston, killing 62 people. Some 10,000 starlings had flown straight into the plane, crippling its engines. Any bird in the wrong place can pose such a danger, but it is the ever-present starling that pilots fear the most. Starlings have proved themselves to be virtually ineradicable, though millions of dollars have been spent trying to do so. Few creatures have inspired so much folly. In 1948, the superintendent of sanitation in Washington, D.C., having failed to rout the birds with balloons and artificial owls, tried exposing them to itching powder. The police used mechanical hawks. An Interior Department consultant proposed placing grease around starling feeding sites, hoping they would track the gook back to their nests and cover their own eggs, preventing them from hatching. The most innovative solution, though, was advanced by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1931. “When the breasts of these birds have been soaked in a soda-salt solution for 12 hours and then parboiled in water, which is afterwards discarded, they may be used in a meat pie that compares fairly with one made of blackbirds or English sparrows.” But cautioned the gamy taste was not for everyone.” In the early 1960’s a Federal Government experiment with poisoned pellets killed thousands of starlings in Nevada. From 1964 to 1967 nine million starlings were poisoned in California’s Solano County in an effort to protect feed lots. During that same time period the California Department of Agriculture experimented with irradiating captive starlings with lethal doses of cobalt-60. In Providence Rhode Island officials set off Roman candles near flocks.
Passer domesticus There are several different versions regarding the introduction of the English sparrow. The sparrow entered the US as a gesture of friendship. As the steamship Europa steamed up the Hudson River the birds were released as a gesture of friendship to the U.S. In reality the English sparrow was introduced numerous times before it finally took hold. Including introductions from guess who? Yep, Eugene Schieffelin. Native to the Old World, the bird was first introduced into the United States about 1850 to combat cankerworms (inch worms…. moths that defoliate trees, both fall and spring cankerworms feed on a wide variety of trees including apple, ash, beech, elm, hickory, linden, maples and oaks) and it rapidly became widespread. Aggressive as well as prolific, it has largely replaced many native birds in urban areas. In 1912 The English Sparrow As a Pest? Farmers Bulletin #493, by USDA noted they eat more than ½ their own weight in grain or other food a day. It contained recipe for house sparrows.
By 1887, some states had already initiated efforts to eradicate HOSPs. States such as Illinois (1891-1895) and Michigan (1887-1895) established bounty programs. According to Keith Kridler, since the bounty on "English" Sparrows was only a few cents per bird in many states, young children killed these birds to earn money for "hard candy." The children quickly learned to wait for the eggs to hatch and thus quadruple their bounty. County clerks often felt sorry for these children, and paid out the bounty on any species of sparrow. A 3/16/1892 article in an Indiana PA paper stated "The different county treasurers of Illinois have paid out in round figures $8,000 as bounty money under a law allowing 2 cents for the head of each sparrow killed during December, January and February in that State. This shows that about 450,000 sparrows were killed, but the frisky bird seems more numerous than ever." • On 09/06/1888, The Cartersville Courant-American newspaper noted "The English Sparrow, with its grown and growing progeny, is a conspicuous nuisance. Can they be no way devised to abate him, if not totally, at least partially?" • An 1883 article in The Messenger (Indiana, PA, 06/27/83) said "The little sparrow has been declared an outlaw by legislative enactment and they can be killed at any time. They were imported into this country from Europe some years ago as a destroyer of insects, but it has been found they are not insectivorous. Besides they drive away all our native song birds and give no equivalent. Let them all be killed." • In 1903, W.L. Dawson wrote "Without question the most deplorable event in the history of American ornithology was the introduction of the English Sparrow." (The Birds of Ohio, 1903)
By there very nature rabbit populations are cyclic. By killing the rabbits the cycle is sometimes exacerbated. When the rabbit population crashes the reproduction of coyotes goes down but for those that are living don’t throw up their paws, fall over and die. They turn to alternative food – like eat more chicken, goats or sheep. Once they learn to like chicken, goats or sheep they continue to hunt them even when the rabbit population increases. If you have problem coyotes deal with them. Bounties have been used to control coyote programs for over 150 years despite a lack of evidence that they lead to long-term reductions in populations. Wolves Reintroduction health of bison herds in Yellowstone increasing. Hunting alllowed? Coyotes Coyote populations doing just fine . 60-70 percent of diet rabbits. Top Dog Fox Ground Nesting Game Birds
Professor Ettiene Leopold Trouvelot – 1855 arrived in America Professor Trouvelot wanted a hardy caterpillar which would feed on oak leaves and spin a cocoon of silk. He thought such a useful creature might be produced by crossing the American Silk Moth, Bombyxmori, which feeds on mulberry and produces a large cocoon, with the Gypsy Moth, Lymantriadispar, which feeds on oak leaves. He was apparently culturing the gypsy moths on trees in his backyard when some of them escaped. Trouvelot understood the potential magnitude of this accident and notified local entomologists, but no action was taken. After the “accident”, outbreaks began to occur in Trouvelot’s neighborhood and in 1890 the State and Federal Government began their attempts to eradicate the gypsy moth. Trouvelot apparently lost interest in entomology and became interested in astronomy. About 10 years after the accident He became famous for his illustrations of astronomical details of Venus and was eventually given a position at Harvard University in Astronomy. A crater on the moon was named in honor of Trouvelot and he won the French Academy’s Valz prize for his astronomical research. The gypsy moth is now one of North America’s most devastating pests. In one of their record breaking years they defoliated almost 13 million acres; in 1993, they devoured a mere 1.8 million acres. This species originally evolved in Europe and Asia where it has existed for thousands of years. Each year about 1 million acres of forest are sprayed aerially with pesticides in order to suppress outbreaks of gypsy moth populations.
Though some areas are treated by private companies under contract with private land owners, most areas are sprayed under joint programs of the state and USDA Forest Service. Millions of dollars of tax money have been spent trying to eradicate and/or control the gypsy moth. More recently, the Asian gypsy moth—traveled as stowaways on boats from Russia to the West Coast in 1991 and from Germany to North Carolina in 1993. The Asian moths eat more voraciously than the Europeans and, because the females can fly, may spread four to five times faster. This gypsy moth is known to feed on the foliage of hundreds of species of plants in North America but its common hosts are oak and aspen. Gypsy moth hosts are located throughout most of the conterminous US but the highest concentrations are in southern Appalachian Mountains, the Ozark Mountains, and the Northern Lake States. Every year isolated populations of are discovered beyond the contiguous range of the gypsy moth. Most die out but it is inevitable that the gypsy moth will continue to expand in the future. New studies suggest that Dimilin (RUP) one of the most effective pesticides against the gypsy moth, does more damage to the environment than previously thought. Dimilin, also destroys insects vital to the health of the forest ecosystem. Dimilin is the cheapest and most efficacious way to kill gypsy moths but the chemical has also become the “bad boy” of pesticides because of its non-target effects. Studies indicate that of all the arthropods in the tree canopy, the macro-Lepidoptera larvae which includes the butterflies and big moths suffer the greatest loss. These arthropods, and others don’t seem to recover for longer than a year after spraying, play a critical role in the forest ecosystem as food for bats and birds. Dimilin is also incredibly toxic to aquatic invertebrates compared with alternatives. An imported fungus is also being utilized to try and control the Gypsy Moth.
Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (ToSCA) the risk of chemicals to human health and the environment are supposed to be evaluated before a chemical is allowed into commerce. Many of the 100,000 chemicals in commerce have never been evaluated because they were already in commerce when the ToSCA was passed in 1976. Approximately 2,000 new chemicals come into commerce in the US each year. The ecological risk assessment is done by calculating the ratio between the Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) and the Predicted No Effects Concentration (PNEC). For fish medicines*- based on acute data the ratio of these two parameters is <1 the environmental effects are considered low or non-existent. If the ratio is greater than 1 or the log Kow is >3 or the DT50 in water is greater than 4 days further studies including chronic toxicity are carried out. *the various factors DT (dissipation time), Kow organisms tested vary depending on the environmental compartment into which the chemical might go (air, water, soil, etc.)
Log Kow for selected environmental contaminants….. DDT 6.19 (1,548,816 times more in octanol than in water). DDD 5.5 DDE 5.7 PCBs congeners range from 4.65 to 7.36 (22,908,676) with the higher the chlorination the greater the log Kow Synthetic musk compounds used in detergents, shampoos, perfumes Kow 6 Triclosan log Kow 4.76, methyl triclosan log Kow 5.2, Triclocarban log Kow 4.9 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) Kow 6.80 contaminate in 2,4,5,T Dibenzofuran Kow 5.17 contaminate in 2,4,5,T Chloroform Kow 1.97 Benzene Kow 2.13
