Theory & Methods

1. Theory & Methods • Although there are no hard and fast rules about which methods are best, some have become associated more with a positivist approach (experiments, questionnaires) and some with social action approaches (participant observation)

2. Theory & Methods • In order to find out information about society sociologists use a range of research methods.

3. Theory & Methods • Primary Methods • Refers to information collected by the researcher • It did not exist before

4. Theory & Methods • Secondary Methods • Refers to data which already exists

5. Theory & Methods quantitative Positivist qualitative Interpretivist Positivist quantitative qualitattive Interpretivist Positivist quantitative qualitative Interpretivist

6. Quantitative data • Data in numerical form – statistics • Tables etc can be made of them • Helpful for looking at correlations/relationships between factors • e.g Durkheim and suicide rates in different countries • Often seen as more reliable data than qualitative

7. Qualitative Data • Data in word form • Harder to analyse than stats • Often seen as more valid data than quantitative

8. Validity • i.e how true a picture does the data give • how close to real life is it?

9. Reliability • Data is reliable when different researchers can repeat the research – • using the same methods and getting the same results

10. The Research Process 1. Choose a topic • At A2 you will carry out a research study of your own choosing. Which topic you choose will depend on a number of factors. Sociologists in their research will go through the same process

11. Values of researcher • What they see as important • e.g gender issues in education • their beliefs, interests etc

12. Value of society • What society sees as important • e.g. Feminists looking at increasing female crime etc

13. Funding • Practical issues are very important • How much money and where the money comes from often dictate what you can and can’t do • e.g. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation funds a lot of research • http://www.jrf.org.uk

14. Availability of data • How easy is it to get access to what you want to find out? • e.g some areas of crime

15. Theoretical position • Marxists will be keen to study areas of class conflict • Post-Modernists may look at the fragmentation of society etc

16. The Research Process • 2. Choosing Research Methods • Some methods are more suitable for particular types of research • Participant Observation may be more useful than a questionnaire when studying football hooliganism • But if the group is large a questionnaire may be more appropriate

17. The Research Process • 3. Theoretical Considerations • Positivists have tended to prefer methods which generate quantitative data • This is because they believe in a scientific study of society • Quantitative data is seen as more objective/unbiased • e.g Durkheim and suicide

18. The Research Process • 3. Theoretical Considerations • Interpretivists are more interested in in-depth studies. • These enable the researcher to see the action through the eyes of the participants • They prefer qualitative methods which give a deeper insight into the meanings behind human interaction • e.g. Atkinson and suicide

19. The Research Process • 3. Theoretical Considerations • However this does not mean that positivists will only use quantitative methods and vice versa!

20. Ethical Issues • Ethical issues are moral principles (beliefs about what is seen as right and wrong). These set down important guidelines for research – stating what you can and can’t do. • There are many grey areas in sociological research and consequently the British Sociological Association has set down key principles (other countries have done the same as have other subject areas - e.g. Psychology)

21. Ethical Issues • Informed Consent • Researchers should give the respondents full info about the research • The respondent then knows what they are agreeing to

22. Ethical Issues • Deception • This is where the respondents are kept from knowing the true purpose of the research • Sometimes this is done so that people will act naturally • e.g. covert observation • But it could be accused of spying

23. Ethical Issues • Confidentiality • Identity of participants should always be kept secret • Unless there are very good reasons for not doing so

24. Ethical Issues • Privacy • Although privacy should be respected • Most research intrudes into people’s lives • Although many give their consent – some participants find that the research has been too intrusive

25. Laboratory Experiments • Lab experiments are the backbone of scientific discovery • The psychologist Milgram used an experiment to discover how cruel humans can be to each other • Lab experiments are rare in sociology

26. Laboratory Experiments • Controlling variables • Labs help to isolate which variables affect something the most • E.g Plant growth can be affected by light, water and temp • In society it is almost impossible to control variables

27. Laboratory Experiments • Quantifying Results • Experiments usually give quantifiable data • They also allow replication – others can do the experiment and get the same results

28. Laboratory Experiments • Correlation and causation • Labs help to find which variables are linked and how. • Is water more important than light for a plant’s growth?

29. Laboratory Experiments • Lab experiments and people • Sociologists are sceptical of lab experiments involving people • Variables can’t be controlled • People will not act naturally • Society could be said to be the lab for sociologists

30. Field Experiments • Lack of control • Field experiments are conducted in normal everyday situations • e.g. in a classroom • Variables can’t be controlled and results can be seen as inexact

31. Field Experiments • The ‘Hawthorne Effect’ • This means that the respondents behave in a certain way because they are being observed • Comes from 1930’s Chicago study at the Hawthorne Electrical works • They found that respondents felt special because they were being watched.

32. Field Experiments • Experimenter Bias • People may respond differently to a male/female, old/young person etc • This is an unintended affect

33. Field Experiments • Ethical Issues • This questions whether it is right or wrong to experiment on individuals • It depends on the experiment but the BSA and BPA say that subjects should be told afterwards that they have taken part in an experiment

34. Surveys • Surveys involve systematic collection of data from a large number of people. They usually use questionnaires and/or interviews but because of their scale are more likely to use closed questions giving quantitative data.

35. Surveys • Response To Surveys • Response rates in surveys are typically low – unless it is something like the National Census where everybody is supposed to take part. • Reasons offered for non response include: · No time · No interest · Unable to contact (moved away) · Suspicious of research • Maintaining privacy

36. Sampling • Sampling is extremely important in sociological research. Given the practical constraints of time and money, it is impossible to approach everyone on a given subject. • As a result, a smaller number is taken from the population, the important thing being that this small group is typical (representative) of the larger group.

37. Sampling • Sampling Unit • This is the individual sample taken from a population • e.g. a doctor from a list of doctors in Torbay

38. Sampling • Sampling Frame • This is the list of the population to be studied and from where the sample is chosen • e.g. List of doctors in Torbay • Electoral registers, school registers, telephone books etc are often used as sample frames

39. Types Of Sample • Random • Every member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected • This avoids bias in selection

40. Types Of Sample • Systematic • A variation on random where every nth person is chosen from a list • e.g. every 10th person on a school register • Like with random sampling this does not guarantee representativeness

41. Types Of Sample • Stratified • Where the population is divided according to certain criteria e.g gender, age etc. • Then proportionate samples are taken from each grouping/strata

42. Types Of Sample • Quota • Where a certain quantity of individuals with certain characteristics are required • e.g. 40 women under 30yrs • often used in market research • not particularly representative

43. Types Of Sample • Snowball and Volunteer • Snowballing – researcher finds one individual who then puts them in touch with others • Often used when it is difficult to find a sample with the right characteristics • e.g criminals • Volunteers – where individuals are invited to take part in a study • e.g press advert • both the above are not very representative

44. Spatial Sample • Sometimes it is useful to study the participants at one particular event i.e. a particular space. • People are usually chosen randomly from the particular population e.g. at a demonstration or a rock concert. They may be only there for a short period of time so this approach has to be quick and easy to execute.

45. Panel Sample (Panel Study) • This is a technique for investigating change over time in the attitudes or opinions of a sample of people. • The group under study (the panel) have information collected about them over a period of months, years or decades. A common panel sample is an age cohort (people within a common age band). • A major problem with this type of sample is keeping it together over a period of time as people drop out for numerous reasons (choice, death, unable to trace etc.)

46. Opportunity Sample • This involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access • Eg passers by in the street, students sitting in the VI form centre etc • This is a non representative sample but is done for convenience (in fact it is sometimes called a convenience sample)