EDM 6210 Education Policy and Society Topic 4 (iii) Education Policy for Equality & Justice

1. PEDU 6210Education Policy and SocietyTopic 4Education Policy and Social Differentiation: Modern Education as Balance Wheel of Social Origins?

2. EDM 6210Education Policy and SocietyTopic 4 (iii)Education Policy for Equality & Justice

3. Horace Mann (1796-1859)

4. Horace Mann’s promise: “Surely nothing but universal education can counterwork this tendency to the domination of capital and servility of labor. If one class possesses all the wealth and the education, while the residue of society is ignorant and poor, it matters not by what name the relation between them may be called: the latter, in fact and in truth, will be the servile dependents and subjects of the former. But, if education be equally diffused, it will draw property after it by the strongest of all attractions. ... Education, then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equalizer of the conditions of men, the balance-wheel of the social machinery.” (Horace Mann, 1848) Downloaded from: http://www.tncrimlaw.com/civil_bible/horace_mann.htm

5. (1)Theorizing the Effects of Social Class on Education

6. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • The basic conceptions of the orthodox Marists • Distinction between infrastructure and superstructure • Education institution is construed as one of the apparatuses of superstructure • The relationship between infrastructure and superstructure: Debate between determinant or conditional relationship

7. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Louis Athusser (1971) Theory of the state • Repressive state apparatus • Ideological state apparatus • School as an essential ideological state apparatus in reproduction of labor power

8. “Unlike social formations characterized by slavery or serfdom, this reproduction of the skills of labour power tends decreasingly to be provided for ‘on the spot’, but is achieved more and more outside production: by the capitalist education system, and by other instances and institutions. What do children learn at school? …They learn to read, to write and to add – i.e. a number of techniques, and a number of other things as well, including elements of ‘scientific’ or ‘literary culture’, which are directly useful in the different jobs in production. Thus they learn ‘know-how’. But besides these …children at school also learn the 'rules' of good behaviour, i.e. the attitude that should be observed by every agent in the division of labour, according to the job he is ‘destined’ for: rule of morality, civic and professional conscience, which actually means rules of respect for socio-technical division of labour and ultimately the rule of the order established by class domination.” (Authusser, 1971, p. 132)

10. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles and Gintis' thesis of the rise of mass education in the US • In pre-capitalist and colonial American • Elite education was restricted to a selected few and it serves as "the aristocratic penchant for conspicuous intellectual consumption." (1976, p. 156) • Education for the fortunate few was "narrowly vocational, restricted to preparation of children for a career in the church, the 'learned professionals', or the still inconsequential state bureaucracy." (1976, p. 156)

11. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles and Gintis' thesis of the rise of mass education in the US • In early capitalist economy • Mass education as means of to resolve institutional crisis of US early capitalist economy and migrant society • Mass education as means of assimilation, integration and control of transient, even foreign, elements came to constitute a major segment of the population in US Urban areas in the 19th century • Apparent visibility of inequality of wealth in urban areas • Erosion of traditional simple legitimizing ideologies, i.e. the divine right of king and the divine origin of social rank • Universal franchise in election

12. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles and Gintis' thesis of the rise of mass education in the US • In early capitalist economy • Contributions of mass schooling to social assimilation and control • Schooling inculcates work attitude necessary for oppressive factory in primitive capital accumulation in US capitalism • Mass schooling as representation of ostensible openness of the US society State-sponsored education as means to inculcate acceptance of public authority of the Federal and state Government

13. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles and Gintis' thesis … • Schooling in corporate capitalism for differentiated labor force • Class politics in Urban School Reform in the early 20th century • The education-stratification effect of progressive education movement • Progressive education principle  "Needs of the child" replaced common school ideal • The rise of vocational education • The invention of objective educational testing and the institutionalization of educational tracking by "scientific" design

14. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles and Gintis' thesis … • Schooling in corporate capitalism for differentiated labor force • ….. • The expansion and stratification of higher education in the mid 20th century and the proletarianization of white-collar workers

15. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles & Gintis’ thesis… • Education stratification reproduce class stratification • Stratified schooling system reproduced the stratified the technical and cognitive skill of labor • Stratified schooling system reproduced differentiated personalities necessary for the modes of control in capitalist labor process • Legitimizing the economic inequality of capitalism and inculcating the value of possessive individualism • Constituting and reinforcing the fragmented and stratified consciousness of the subordinate economic classes

16. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles & Gintis’thesis… • The correspondence principle in capitalist schooling • The structure correspondence between the social relations of the schooling system and those of capitalist workplace • “The structure of the social relations on education…inures the students to the discipline of the workplace” • It “develops the types of personal demeanor, modes of self-presentation, self-image, and social-class identifications which are the crucial ingredients of job adequacy”.

17. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles & Gintis’thesis… • The Correspondence principle … • The hierarchical relations between administrators and teachers, teachers and students, and among students replicate the hierarchical division of labor and vertical authority lines in the workplace. • The alienating features in schooling learning prepare students for the alienating features in the Fordist labor process • The “destructive competition among students through continual and ostensibly meritocratic ranking and evaluation” nurtures the fragmented and stratified consciousness in the workplace and legitimatize the economic inequality in capitalism

18. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Bowles & Gintis’ theisi • Differentiation of correspondence principles in the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy

19. Independent, Creative, Aggressive Goal Setting Rule Setting Dependable, Self-disciplined, Self-sufficient Rule Implementing Patient, compliant, obedient, docile Rule Following Educational Hierarchy Occupational Hierarchy

20. Education as Reproduction Mechanism of Class Relation: The Marxian Perspective • Differentiation of correspondence principles between the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy • The correspondence principles between the social relations in family and those in schools

21. Independent, Creative, Aggressive Goal Setting Rule Setting Dependable, Self-disciplined, Self-sufficient Rule Implementing Patient, compliant, obedient, docile Rule Following Occupational Hierarchy Educational Hierarchy

22. Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education • Resistance theorists’ critique on structuralist reproduction theory • The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents • The resistance capacity of both students and teachers

24. The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents “Reproduction theorists have overemphasized the idea of domination in their analysis and have failed to provide any major insights into how teachers, students, and other human agents come together within specific historical and social contexts in order to both make and reproduce the conditions of their existence. … Human subjects generally “disappear” amidst a theory that leaves no room for moments of self-creation, mediation, and resistance. These accounts often leave us with a view of schooling and domination that appears to have been pressed out of an Orwellian fantasy; schools are often viewed as factories or prisons, teachers and students alike act merely as pawns and role bearers constrained by the logic and social practices of the capitalist system.” (Giroux, 1983, p.259)

25. Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education • Resistance theorists’ critique on structuralist reproduction theory • The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents • The resistance capacity of both students and teachers • The incoherence in the structure capitalist system

26. The incoherence in the structure capitalist schooling system “In resistance accounts, schools are relatively autonomous institutions that not only provide spaces for oppositional behavior and teaching but also represent a source of contradictions that sometimes make them dysfunctional to the material and ideological interests of the dominant society. Schools are not solely determined by the logic of the workplace or the dominant society; they are not merely economic institutions but are also political, cultural, and ideological sites that exist somewhat independently of the capitalist market economy. …Moreover, instead of being homogeneous institutions operating under the direct control of business groups, schools are characterized by diverse forms of school knowledge, ideologies, organizational styles, and classroom social relation.” (Giroux, 1983, p.259)

27. Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education • Resistance theorists’ critique on structuralist reproduction theory • The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents • The resistance capacity of both students and teachers • The incoherence in the structure capitalist system • The dialectic and contradictory nature of capitalist system

29. Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education • Revision of the reproduction theory: Structural contradictions thesis • Bowles and Gintis’ conceptions of sites and practice • Differentiating sites: Family, state, and capitalist production • Differentiating Practices: cultural, political, appropriative, and distributive practices • Structural delimitations of sites • Transportation of practices across sites • Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society

31. Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education • Revision of the reproduction theory: • Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society: “Girous (1981) and Apple (1982) call on Gramsci’s dialectical concept of hegemony and counterhegemony in arguing that schools reproduce class but the practices of schooling…are resisted by counterhegemonic tendencies in working-class youth, young women, and minorities. However, counterhegemony as Gramsci defined it is necessarily rooted in social and political movements, as in 1968 in France and Mexico or in 1970 in the United States. The relation between movements and resistance to the hegemonic “hidden curriculum” in schools is not spelled out by Apple and Giroux.” (Carnoy & Levin, 1985, p.160)

32. Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society “Our view is that resistance is embedded in social conflict, and social conflict outside the schools has historically shaped the class-structured schooling now being resisted by some subordinate groups. …The constant struggle to expand democratic rights, both political and economic, also takes place within education, expanding the role of schools in the process of social mobility and in the more equitable treatment of subordinate groups. Therefore, social conflict shapes educational change over time. Resistance to ideologically based curricula and other schooling practices has to be set in the context of this conflict. Such resistance is not independent of the struggle going on outside the school.” (Carnoy & Levin, 1985, p.160)

33. Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society “The schools are an arena of conflict because they have the dual role of preparing workers and citizens. The preparation required for citizenship in a democratic society based on equal opportunity and human rights is often incompatible with the preparation needed for job performance in a corporate system of work. …One the one hand, schools must train citizens to know their rights under the law as well as their obligations to exercise these rights through political participation. …On the other, schools must train workers with the skills and personality characteristics that enable them to function in an authoritarian work regime. This requires a negation of the very political rights that make for good citizens.” (Carnoy & Levin, 1985, p.247)

34. Education as Cultural Market: The Weberian Theory • Weber’s thesis on The Typological Position of Confucian Education :

35. Collin’s theory of political economy of culture

36. Collin’s theory of political economy of culture • Randall Colln in his book Credential Society makes a distinction between productive labor and political labor • “Productive labor is responsible the material production of wealth.” • “Political labor sets the conditions under which the wealth is appropriated. To the extent that one is paid for one’s productive contribution, this does not happen automatically but because political labor has shaped the organizational structure and the labor market to make this possible.” (Collins, 1979, p. 50)

37. Collin’s theory of political economy of culture • Distinction between material property and positional property • Material property refers to one’s possession of material and financial asserts which can generate wealth. • Positional property refers to one’s possession of the capacity or authority to determine how wealth are distributed among productive positions in organization and in labor market at large, and more fundamentally among class positions in a class structure.

38. Collin’s theory of political economy of culture • Cultural market and cultural currency • Cultural market refers to the field in which cleavage lines (i.e. distinctions) among positional groupings (e.g. status groups) are constituted, alliances among them are formed, and closures and barriers restricting inter-grouping mobility are set. In short, cultural market is where the definition of the positional property of a given society is institutionalized. • Cultural currency refers to the most commonly accepted cultural goods in a given market. Collins asserts that educational qualifications in the form of credentials have risen to the position of universally accepted cultural currency in modern societies.

39. Collin’s theory of political economy of culture • Professionalization and the constitution of monopoly of expertise • Professionalization of supply • Institutionalization of professional knowledge • Institutionalization of professional practice • Institutionalization of professional career • Professionalization of demand • Professionalization of work-organization

40. Bourdieu’s Reproduction Theory of Education • By applying the conceptual apparatuses found in Bourdieu’s theory of class practice, educational system, education policy and more specifically pedagogic action can be understood as • “All pedagogic action is, objectively, symbolic violence insofar as it is the imposition of a cultural arbitrary by an arbitrary power.” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977, p. 5)

42. Bourdieu’s Reproduction Theory of Education • “Insofar as it is a power of symbolic violence, exerted within a relation of pedagogic communication which can produce its own specifically symbolic effect only because the arbitrary power which makes imposition possible is never seen in its full truth; and insofar as it is the inculcation of a cultural arbitrary, carried on within a relation of pedagogic communication which can produce its own, specifically pedagogic effect only because the arbitrariness of the content inculcated is never seen in its full truth– pedagogic actionnecessarily implies, as a social condition of its exercise, pedagogic authority and the relative autonomy of the agency commissioned to exercise it.” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977, p. 11-12)

43. Bourdieu’s Reproduction Theory of Education • “Insofar as it is the arbitrary imposition of a cultural arbitrary presupposing pedagogic authority, i.e. a delegation of authority, which requires the pedagogic agency to reproduce the principles of the cultural arbitrary which a group or class imposes as worthy of reproduction both by its very existence and by the fact of delegating to an agency the authority needed in order to reproduce it, pedagogic action entails pedagogic work, a process of inculcation which must last long enough to produce a durable training, i.e. a habitus, the product of internalization of the principles of a cultural arbitrary capable of perpetuating itself after pedagogic action has ceased and thereby of perpetuating in practices the principles of the internalized arbitrary.” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977, p. 31)

44. Bourdieu’s Reproduction Theory of Education • “Every institutionalized education system owes the specific characteristics of its structure and functioning to the fact that, by the means proper to the institution, it has to produce and reproduce the institutional conditions whose existence and persistence (self-reproduction of the system) are necessary both to the exercise of its essential function of inculcation and to the fulfillment of its function of reproducing a cultural arbitrary which it does not produce (cultural reproduction), the reproduction of which contributes to the reproduction of the relations between the groups or classes (social reproduction)” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977, p.54)

45. Cultural Arbitrary of the Dominant Class Social Space/Space of Position Field of Force Other Fields Pedagogic Action (imposition of cultural arbitrary) Capital Other Forms of Capitals Pedagogic Authority Time/History Social Reproduction Inculcate Pedagogic Work Habitus Institution Reactivate Education Institution Self (institutional) Reproduction Cultural Reproduction 45 Pierre Bourdieu’s Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture

46. Cultural Arbitrary of the Dominant Class Social Space/Space of Position Field of Force Other Fields Pedagogic Action (imposition of cultural arbitrary) Capital Other Forms of Capitals Pedagogic Authority Time/History Social Reproduction Inculcate Pedagogic Work Habitus Institution Reactivate Education Institution Self (institutional) Reproduction Cultural Reproduction Pierre Bourdieu’s Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture

47. Debate on Cultural Resistance in Education • Paul Willis’ ethnographic study of working class kids’ resistance to school culture • Paul Willis (1977) Learning to labor: How working class kids get working class jobs. From 1972 to 1975 Paul Willis studied 12 working class youths’ school life and the transmission to life on the shop floor. • Willis revealed that a kind of school counter-culture prevailed among his subjects. This culture consisted of elements such as anti-authority, anti-intellectual, hard-tough masculine identity, sexism and racism. • Willis argued that this school counter-culture had direct relationship with the main features of the shop-floor culture of the working class.

49. Debate on Cultural Resistance in Education • More importantly, the study poses a significant question to the resistance theory in education and to a larger extent to the theory of class-culture formation, that is, what is the real meaning of school counter-culture to working class kids in the context of class reproduction in class society? “For no matter what the larger pattern of working class culture and cycle of its continuous regeneration, no matter what the severity of disillusion amongst ‘the lads’ as they get older, their passage is to all intents and purposes irreversible. When the cultural apprenticeship of the shopfloor is fully worked out, and its main real activity of arduous production for others in unpleasant surroundings is seen more clearly, there is a double kind of entrapment in what might then be seen, as the school was seen before, as the prison of the workshop. Ironically, as the shopfloor becomes a prison, education isseen retrospectively, and hopelessly, as the only escape.” (Willis, 1977, 107)

50. Debate on Cultural Resistance in Education • John U. Ogbu’s theory of “acting white” 1939-2003