Refutations + Past Research

1. Refutations + Past Research ENC 2300

2. Step 1: Predict Counterarguments • Consider whowould disagree with your thesis and why they would do so. • •Consider why people/researchers may disagree with your argument. • •Consider how people/research might present information to prove your assertion incorrect. • •Consider whatresearch has already been done. (And research that!) • •Researching your topic thoroughly will assist in predicting counter arguments.

3. Specify the Opposing arguments or Gaps/Problems in Research Predictions/Assumptions of Opposing Views Facts/History/Review of Research • It may be argued that X... • X could be claimed... • X has been argued... • People may argue that... • It could be claimed that X is... • Researchers in X field have maintained .... • Past studies have focused on X aspect of Y... • Previous studies depict X as Y...

4. Agree/disagree • 1. Completely agree • 2. Partially agree / Compromise • •Admit that a point in the opposing viewpoint/ research is partially correct. Concede, but prove that the argument is not complete / powerful enough / or there is a better solution. • •To a certain extent, X is right. However,... • •In situation A, this will work. However, in most cases,... • 3. Completely disagree

5. Prediction/Assumption Of Opposing Views • Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age.

6. Prediction of Opposing Views • In China one could claim that the U.S.­ China • relationship has served mostly American interests. • * In fact, however, both sides have benefited. There has been continual horse trading, and betrayals of promises to the other to make things right at home. Policy premised on the theory that only China has benefited from the relationship would be a tragedy. • +Evidence to support the premise... • *Explanation supporting this topic sentence is needed

7. Prediction of Opposing Views • ... Following Nussbaum's way of analysis, one could argue that, by way of its critical approach, disability studies implies morality already – but its potential can only fully be fruitful if acknowledged and allowed to influence analysis in a more profound manner...

8. Providing Background • Another common way to start a research paper is by giving the background to the topic in the first part of the essay. Commonly, whole paragraphs will be devoted to providing the needed background information and previous research conducted. • Look to the following two examples and analyze the tactics they use to prepare their reader for their argument.

9. Facts/History/Review of Research • Previous research has not addressed whether or not people who are employed in some occupations rate the maintenance of overall appearance more important than do people who are employed in other occupations. Moreover, research has not fully considered the behavior consequences of individuals putting more or less emphasis on physical appearance. Nor has it addressed if they patronize a beauty shop, or a beauty salon in maintaining their appearance.

10. Facts/History/Review of Research • The coevolution of parasites and their hosts has both general biological interest and practical implications in agricultural, veterinary and medical fields. Surprisingly, most medical, parasitological and ecological texts dismiss the subject with unsupported statements to the effect that ‘successful’ parasite species evolve to be harmless to their hosts. Recently, however, several people have explored theoretical aspects of the population genetics of host ­parasite associations; these authors conclude that such associations may be responsible for much of the genetic diversity found within natural populations, from blood group polymorphisms (Haldane, 1949) to protein polymorphisms in general (Clarke, 1975, 1976) and to histocompatibility systems (Duncan, Wakeland & Klein, 1980). It has also been argued that pathogens may constitute the selective force responsible for the evolution and maintenance of sexual reproduction in animal and plant species. • (Jaenike, 1978; Hamilton, 1980, 1981, 1982; Bremermann, • 1980)

11. Provide Both • Regardless of our topic and essay structure, we need to include both opposing viewpoints and adequate background information on the research of our topic. • Without both of these elements in our paper, we are not providing the reader with sufficient information to fully understand the debate at hand.