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Writing a scientific paper

Writing a scientific paper. Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until drops of blood form on your forehead. Gene Fowler. Written and oral communications skills are probably the most universal qualities needed in research

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Writing a scientific paper

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  1. Writing a scientific paper Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until drops of blood form on your forehead. Gene Fowler

  2. Written and oral communications skills are probably the most universal qualities needed in research • You alone are responsible for developing such skills to a high level. • Here are some basic tools • Full “manual” on your memory stick

  3. Before you start • Read journal requirementscarefullybeforeyou start firstdraft • Stick to them! • Thinkbeforewriting: • Why did I do this? • How did I do it? • Whatwasmyresult? • Whatare the implications of mystudy? • Complete all tables and write a rough abstract

  4. In all sections of your paper • Stay focused on the research topic of the paper • Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract) • Present your points in logical order • Use present tense to report well accepted facts - for example, 'the grass is green' • Use past tense to describe specific results - for example, 'When weed killer was applied, the grass was brown' • Avoid informal wording, don't address the reader directly, and don't use jargon, slang terms, or superlatives • Avoid use of superfluous pictures - include only those figures necessary to presenting results

  5. Common simple mistakes to avoid • Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page • (insert a page break!) • Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table to a single page • Submitting a paper with pages out of order

  6. Common Errors in Research Papers • Observe differences in qualitative and quantitative journals (use of quotes, length) • Use of the wrong verb tense, at best, is irritating to read and reflects poorly on the student's writing skills. • At worst, the reader can be confused as to what facts are already known and what was newly discovered in the actual study that is the subject of the paper. • As a rule, use past tense to describe events that have happened. Such events include procedures that you have conducted and results that you observed. • Use present tense to describe generally accepted facts.

  7. Common Errors in Research Papers • Proofread! • Incomplete sentences, redundant phrases, obvious misspellings, and other symptoms of a hurriedly-written paper can cost you. • Check spelling of scientific names, names of people, names of compounds, etc. Spelling and grammatical errors can be embarrassing. • When you print off your paper, please make sure that tables are not split over more than one page, that headings are not "orphaned," pages submitted out of sequence, etc. • Remember, someone has to read this thing! If the reader is an editor or reviewer, you might get a rejection notice because you were too sloppy.

  8. Irrelevant information • Anecdotal information • Sometimes you may feel the need to justify a statement or procedure by stating "'the instructor told us to do this instead of that.” • A research paper summarizes a study. It does not identify who did what. • Reference to instructors, fellow students, teams, partners, etc. are not appropriate, nor is it appropriate to refer to "the lab."

  9. Unnecessary background • If you state facts or describe mechanisms, do so in order to make a point or to help interpret results, and do refer to the present study. • If you write everything you know about the subject, you are waste your time (and that of your reader). • Stick to the appropriate point, and include a reference to your source of background information if important.

  10. Including material that is inappropriate for the readership • It isn't necessary to tell fellow scientists that your study is pertinent to the field of biochemistry. • Your readers can figure out to what field(s) your work applies. • Define blood pressure to a physician reader…..

  11. Subjectivity and use of superlatives • Technical writing differs from the writing of fiction, opinion pieces, scholarly English papers, etc. in many ways. • We do not use superlatives and subjective statements in science. • Objectivity is absolutely essential. • Constructed example: “The objective is to avoid that poor and underserved Gulu is attacked again by young men who are just as bad as Joseph Kony” • Could instead be: “The objective is to study the sense of human security among young men in post-conflict Gulu”

  12. Superlatives • Superlatives include adjectives such as "huge," "incredible," "wonderful," "exciting," etc. • “It was wonderful to see that an incredible number of abducted women returned from the bush during the study period” • Could be: “64 % more abducted women returned from the bush during the study period compared to the previous 10 years period”

  13. Beliefs or objectivity • Similarly, we don't write that we believe something. • We present the evidence, and perhaps suggest strong support for a position, but beliefs don't come into play. • In particular, we do not "expect" a particular set of results, or "wire" a hypothesis so that it appears that we correctly predicted the results.

  14. Proof? • The requirements for scientific proof are extremely rigorous. • It is highly doubtful that any single study can be so well controlled that its conclusions can be regarded as proof. • In fact, for any result to be accepted it must be confirmed independently. • In fact, we can never know if a model as we describe it presents an accurate picture of any natural process. • So... your data may strongly support a position, or they may allow you to reject a hypothesis, but they aren't likely to provide anything close to proof.

  15. Superficiality • The purpose of a discussion is to interpret the results, not to simply state them in a different way. • A superficial discussion ignores mechanisms or fails to explain them completely. • It should be clear to the reader why a specific result came to pass. • The statement, "The result agreed with the known theoretical value," tells us nothing about the mechanism(s) behind the result. • What is the basis for expecting a particular result? • Superficial statements, on the other hand, will cost you.

  16. Common mistakes in reporting results • Converted data are data that have been analyzed, usually summarized, and presented in such a way that only the information pertinent to the objectives of the study is presented.  • Raw data refers to results of individual replicate trials, individual observations, chart records, and other information that comes directly from the laboratory. • Once you have presented converted data, do not present the same data in a different way. For example, if the data are plotted, then don't include a table of data as well. Present a figure (such as a graph) if appropriate. If the data are better represented by a table, then use a table. • The caption with any figure or table should include all pertinent information. One should not have to go into the body of the paper to find out the results of statistical tests on the data, or the rationale behind a curve fit.

  17. Common mistakes in reporting results • Do not mix methods and results • Do not draw conclusions in the results section. Reserve data interpretation for the discussion.

  18. The significance of 'significance' • Lack of a significant difference does not mean that the result itself is insignificant. "It is significant that we found no significant differences among the groups studied”. • Studies are often rejected as inconclusive just because no statistically significant differences were found. This is a misunderstanding of the scientific method itself. • You can conclude something from even the most poorly designed experiments. • Be prepared to interpret whatever you find, regardless of what you think you should find. • The purpose of experimental science is to discover the truth - not to make the data conform to one's expectations.

  19. Presenting a Scientific Paper

  20. Plan – before you start • 1. OrganizeyourIdeas • Introduction • Preliminaries • Body • Technicalities • Conclusion • 3. Slides • 4. Speaking • 5. The Show • 6. Last Tips

  21. Before You Start • KnowyourTopic • (Be sure you have understood the paper) • KnowYourAudience • (Your talk must take the audience into account) • KnowYourGoals • (What are the expectations of the audience?) • KnowYour Limits • (how much time will be needed?)

  22. Organize Your Ideas (1/3) • Identify the KeyIdeas • (Make sure that all the key ideas of the paper are in your talk) • Do not go into too Many Details • (Ignore the superfluous and focus on the essentials, use examples!) • Use A Top-Down Approach • (startingwide, finishingnarrow) • StructureYour Talk • Introduction, Preliminaries, Body, Technicalities, Conclusion)

  23. Organize Your Ideas (2/3) • Introduction • Define the Problem • Motivate the Audience • DiscussEarlier/PosteriorWork (briefly) • Emphasize the Contribution of the Paper • Provide a Road-map • Preliminaries • Introduce Terminology and Notations or the Setting of the Experiment (but only the absolutelynecessaryones) • If Needed, Redefine the Problem more Technically

  24. Organize Your Ideas (3/3) • Body • List Major Results • Explain the Meaning of the Results • Give someExamples • Technicalities • Either Sketch the proof of an important result or Present some experimental results • Conclusion • Remind the Main Results • Explain Your Opinions on the Paper • Indicate that Your Talk is Over

  25. Slides! • Use them: computerized, printed or handwritten • Slides arekeywords, structure, highlights • The Simpler, the Better! • (do not put the whole sentences you want to say on slides) • UseColors! • (but don’texaggerate !) • Use Pictures • (one picture is worth thousands of words) • One Slide = 1–3 minutes (average) • (thinkabout timing) • 45 minutes = 45 slides • 20 minutes = 20 slides • 10 minutes = 10 slides • Practicewithaudience (somecolours fade! Toomuchtext) • Avoidtoomany animations, fancy designs

  26. Speaking • Speak Slowly, Steadily and Loud • Find the Right Words • (prepare some full sentences to say during the talk) • Use the “notes” function in powerpoint • Write a manuscript • Transitions are the Keys • (prepare transition between slides) • Practice transitions • Improvisation is Needed • (whatever you do, you will have to improvise) • Humour is OK but not Recommended • (do not try to be too funny!)

  27. The Show • Do not bemonotonous • (try to make your voice vary slightly) • Act like a human being – you know your talk by heart, they don’t! • Make the AudienceParticipate • (depends on the type of talk) • MaintainEyeContact • (don’t show them your back) • ControlYour Position • (don’thide the slides) • ControlYour Timing • (do not forget the time) • I made a Mitsake... The Show Must Go On • Don’t apologize for 3 minutes, just go on

  28. Last Tip • Practice! • Practice ! • Practice ! • Practice ! • Practice !

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