MLS 570 Critical Thinking

1. MLS 570Critical Thinking Reading Notes Fogelin: The Language of Argument Fall Term 2006 North Central College

2. The Language of Argument: will cover the following • The basic structure of arguments: • Reason & Conclusion “markers” act as signals for premises and conclusions • “If-then: statements • Are not arguments, but can be part of an argument and may even imply one. • Validity, Truth & Soundness • Makes sure the argument is a good one – with a valid structure and [actually] true premises. • Assuring & Guarding • Ways we protect our arguments.

3. The basic structure of arguments: • A group of sentences is not an argument unless some of the statements are offered as reasons in support of another statement. • Reasons and Conclusions are “signaled” by “markers”. • Reason Markers include: since, because, for • Conclusion Markers include: therefore, thus, so, then, hence, accordingly • Note: these words are not always used as argument markers, for example: “since” and “then” can be used as indicators of time and “for” can be used as a preposition.

4. Other “signals” for arguments • From which it follows that … • From which we may conclude that … • From which we see that … • Which goes to show that … • Which establishes that … • You can also use “argumentative performatives” to signal reasons and conclusions. • I conclude that … • I offer the following as evidence that …

5. If . . . Then . . . conditionals • Often occur in arguments, but are not by themselves an argument. • They have two parts • The antecedent is the part between the “if” and the “then” – IfMayor Daley runs again, then he will be re-elected. • The consequent is what follows the “then” -- If Mayor Daley runs again, thenhe will be re-elected.

6. Conditional vs. Argument • Conditional: If you work hard then you will be promoted. • This is not an argument because we are not making the claim that the antecedent is true. • Argument: Since you will work hard you will be promoted. • This IS an argument. You are asserting the truth of what follows “since.” • If … then … statements may appear in an argument, but they are not arguments in themselves, nor is “if… then…” an argument “marker”.

7. What is the connection between conditionals and arguments? • Indicative conditionals provide a pattern that can be converted into an argument whenever the antecedent of the “if… then” statement is taken to be true. • If international terrorism continues to grow, [then] there will be a worldwide crisis. But international terrorism will certainly continue to grow, so a world crisis is on the way. • Remember that “so” is a conclusion marker.

8. Standard Argument Form If international terrorism continues to grow, then there will be a worldwide crisis. International terrorism will certainly continue to grow. so a world crisis is on the way. is the shorthand for signaling a conclusion

9. Some examples from Ex 1.

10. Validity, Truth & Soundness • An argument is valid if and only if it is not possible for all of its premises to be true while the conclusion is false. • Its conclusion MUST be true if all its premises are true. • This keeps us from reasoning from truth to falsity.

11. Examples

12. Truth & Soundness • Validity is necessary for an argument to be good. • but we also must take the actual TRUTH of the statements into account • Why? Because an argument can be valid even when some of the statements are actually false • So we also require that the premises be ACTUALLY true. [Remember we only assume them true to determine validity] • For an argument to be SOUND two criteria must be met: • The argument must be valid. [There is no way the conclusion can be false if assume premises are true] • The premises must be true.

13. How do we keep our arguments to a manageable size? • To prevent having to put forth an argument for every premise, and then an argument for every premise in THAT argument, and then … – you get the idea. • We refer to various shared beliefs. • We use other strategies including • Assuring others that there are backup reasons • Guarding our claims by weakening them • Discounting possible criticisms by anticipating and dismissing them.

14. Assuring: the ways we do it! • We cite authorities • Recent studies have shown … • We comment on the strength of our own belief. • I’m certain that • We abuse the audience. • Everyone with any sense agrees that … • We can also give assurances that something is false. • It is no longer held that … • No one seriously maintains that …[abusive] • The use of assurances should follow the conversational rule of Quality.

15. Guarding:Reducing our claim to something less strong • There are 3 ways to weaken our claims • Extent: Retreat from saying “all” to “most” to “some” etc… • Probability: Use phrases such as – “It is virtually certain that …, “It is likely that …” • Cognitive State: Rather that “I know that…” say “I believe that…” or [using two ways!] “I tend to believe that …” • Watch out for misuses …

16. Discounting: Citing a possible criticism in order to reject or counter it. • How this works • “The ring is beautiful, but expensive.” – a reason for not buying the ring. • “The ring is expensive, but beautiful – a reason for buying the ring. • Format: • The assertion of A • The assertion of B • The suggestion of some opposition between A & B. • The indication that the truth of B is more important than the truth of A. • Useful when facts point in different directions – can be abused.

17. Argumentative Performatives • These are when performatives are used to make a move in an argument. • I conclude that … • I base my argument on the claim that … • I deny such and such … • I concede the point … • I reserve comment … • Some uses are signals, others are tactical.

18. The Language of Argument • In conclusion … • Be sure you understand Validity and Soundness. • Can you recognize & write arguments that are Valid? Invalid? Valid, but not sound? Sound? • Know the difference between Assuring, Guarding and Discounting. • Understand their [good] uses and abuses. • Understand how Argumentative Performatives help to organize an argument.