LOW CARBON BUSINESS REGULATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1. N.K. Tovey (杜伟贤) M.A, PhD, CEng, MICE, CEnv Н.К.Тови М.А., д-р технических наук NBS-M009 2010 LOW CARBON BUSINESS REGULATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP Control of Energy use in Buildings Building Regulations Recipient of James Watt Gold Medal 1 Lecture 2 1 Lecture 1 1

2. Building Regulations • Review of Building Regulations in UK • Factors affecting energy consumption and carbon emissions • Standard Assessment Procedure • Code for Sustainable Homes • Energy Performance Certificates • Introduction in Indian Building Regulations • Introduction to Chinese Building Regulations Lecture 2 Lecture 1 Lecture 3

3. Introduction of Building Regulations • Until 1965 there were no national Building Codes. • Previously Local Bye Laws prevailed and modes of construction varied from one part of UK to another. • First Building Regulations did not include requirements for Energy Conservation – these came in 1976 • Building Regulations are divided into sections and associated Approved Documents (ADs) • Part A: Structural Maters • Part B: Fire • Part F: Ventilation • Part H: Heat producing appliances • Part L: Energy Conservation and more recently carbon emissions • Each Part has associated Ads e.g. for Part L the Approved Documents were originally ADL. • Subsequently divided into ADL1 and ADL2 covering dwellings and non-dwelling separately • Then subdivided further into ADL1a and ADL1b covering new and existing buildings.

4. First introduced as Part L in 1976 Basic Statement – largely following what was then common practice e.g. cavity walls brick cavity block with no insulation: - no insulation in floor, minimal insulation in loft. 1994: First attempt to address overall annual energy consumption, although elemental method of compliance was still permitted 2002: Carbon Index introduced 2006: Target Emission Rate and Dwelling Emission Rate introduced. 2010: Came into force Oct 1st 2010 – relatively minor updates on 2006 Regulations Changes in the Heating Standards of Houses 4

5. Many Deficiencies in earlier Building Regulations • Before 1994 if double glazing was used • window area could be doubled • requirements for walls/roof/floor could be relaxed if overall loss < = standard house (type 1 trade off) • From 1995 • Could include incidental gains from appliance use/solar gains • If consumption <= standard house - regulations could be relaxed further • 1994 & 2000 regulations • If triple glazing used window area can be increased by 50% (type 2 trade off) • If higher insulations for walls used, greater window area permitted provided <= standard house. • Traditionally framed for minimum compliance rather than actively promoting energy conservation • Less an issue in 2000 Regs • 2005 Regs tightened further reducing opportunities for trade-offs On other hand some of these trade-offs potentially could encourage innovation?

6. U-Value Specification with different Regulations

7. Comparison of energy consumption for a standard detached house at various ages and improvements (Heat losses in W0C-1) DG – double glazing CAV – cavity wall insulation Numerical value indicates thickness of loft insulation

8. Effects of built form on energy consumption (Heat loss WoC-1) Flats Bungalows Houses

9. Compliance to Building Regulations • Compliance to Building Regulations may be achieved by one of several alternative methods. • Elemental Method • Specifies maximum U-value and perhaps maximum glazed area – valid until 2002 Regs • Target U-value – weighted average U-value allowed some flexibility in design • SAP Rating (1994 Regs) – economic assessment • Carbon Index (2002 Regs) • Target Emission Rate (Current Regs)

10. 1994 Regulations: A step change • Single glazing could no longer be used routinely for domestic buildings • Glazed area 22.5% of floor area • 50% greater than 1990 regs • 50% potential saving lost • Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) rating for new buildings • 0-100 – higher the better • No target SAP but requirements relaxed if >60 • SAP 80-84 – Regs automatically satisfied • Includes energy running costs in calculation • Trade offs permitted • Does not specify ventilation rates but gives method for estimating • Make allowance for solar water heating if fitted • Include hot water requirements

11. Building Regulations 2000 • Implemented April 2002 • Energy rating method • SAP replaced by Carbon Index method for compliance • SAP ratings still to be calculated and notified to building control bodies • Requirement of heating & hot water changed to encompass overall system performance, not just controls • Boiler seasonal efficiency, inspection & commissioning included • New requirements for efficient lighting systems & provision of information for householders • Standards of fabric insulation improved • Lower (better) standards (loft insulation) • Reductions in U values (towards technical limits) • Changed methods for calculating U values • Lower U values for windows • Based on sealed double-glazed units with low emissivity panes • Area of glazing increased to 25% floor area • Target U-value method retained but provisions for trade-offs improved.

12. Compliance procedures 2000 Regulations Three methods to demonstrate compliance with Building Regulations: • Elemental approach • Target U-Value method • Carbon Index • 1. Elemental approach – valid if specific conditions are met. • Heating must be gas, oil, heat pump, CHP DH, biogas or biomass • U-values <= Building Regs 2000 standards • Area window, doors, roof lights <=25% floor area • Boiler: SEDBUK efficiency >=78% gas, 80% LPG, 85% oil see www.sedbuk.com [SEDBUK – Seasonal efficiency of domestic boilers in the UK. The average annual efficiency achieved in typical domestic conditions.]

13. EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) 2002/91/EC • Aims at improving energy efficiency, carbon emissions from buildings could be reduced by 22%. Objectives of the Directive: • To promote the improvement of the energy performance of buildings within the EU through cost effective measures; • To promote the convergence of building standards towards those of Member States which already have ambitious levels. Measures include: • Methodology for calculating the energy performance of buildings; • Application of performance standards on new and existing buildings; • Certification schemes for all buildings; • Regular inspection and assessment of boilers/heating and cooling installations.

14. UK ResponsePart L Building Regulations (2005)Approved Document ADL1a • Came into force in England and Wales on 6 April 2006 (Scotland & Ireland to follow) • Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) now Department of Local Government and Communities (DCLG) • Complies with EU legislation • Moves away from energy conservation to carbon emission reduction • UK National Calculation Methodology (NCM) for energy performance of buildings based on SAP 2005

15. 2. Target U-Value method • Calculate Target U-Value • a function of areas of floor, roof, walls, windows etc • Modify target • gas & oil boilers: actual SEDBUK efficiency standard SEDBUK efficiency • electric & coal heating: divide by 1.15 • No modification for heat pumps, biomass, biogas, CHP • Purpose of modifications is to give more freedom for designs using efficient oil or gas boilers • Modify target if area south facing windows > area north facing windows • Calculate weighted average U-value of all external surfaces • Weighted average U-value must be <= Target value

16. 3. Carbon Index Method • Most complex method • Replaces SAP energy rating as a method of compliance • Carbon index appears to be 0-10 • Must be >= 8 to comply • Max carbon index 10 – but actually 17.7! • Reality: 8 out of 17.7 or 4.5 out of 10! • SAP procedure is followed • up to point of introducing costs of fuels • actual annual energy consumption is used to calculate the annual carbon dioxide emission • translated into a carbon index

17. Standard Assessment Procedure (2001) • Calculate U-values • Check U-values are achieved • Calculate • gross heat requirements (Heat Loss Rate) • hot water requirements • incidental & solar gains • effective gains • effective internal temperature • corrected degree-day parameter • net space heating total energy requirement • Select heating method (pumps, appliance efficiency) • Calculate Total Energy Requirement • Estimate energy costs of total space heating, hot water & pumps • Deflate energy by Energy Cost Factor – 1994:0.96, 2001:1.05

18. Carbon emissions for same house designed to different standards

20. Building Regulation: Compliance Summary Up to and including 2000 Regulations • Elemental Method – specifying U-values of fabric elements • Target U-Value – allowed some flexibility of design. • SAP Rating – an economic measure – only permitted for compliance in 1994 Regs. 2000/2002 Regulations • Carbon Index Method- a distorted Carbon Measure 2005/6 Regulations • Dwelling Emission Rating must be better than Target Emission Rating. Latter is a derivative of the Target U-Value Method. 2009/10 Regulations • Retains DER and TER but expects a 25% improvement on performance over 2005/6 standards

21. Carbon Index Calculations (2000 and onwards regulations) • Attempts to assess the true environmental performance of a building • Follow Standard Assessment Procedure to calculate Total Energy Requirement • Calculate CO2 emissions for building • Calculate Carbon Factor (CF) • CF=CO2 (TFA+45) where TFA is total floor space • Carbon Index (CI) CI=17.7-9.0 log10(CF) • Complication of scale >10 • 2000regulations indicated that compliance is 11kg CO2 per m2 – carbon index of 8 • If true scale was used Zicer & Elizabeth Fry would score 13.5 out of 10.

22. Critique of the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) • Energy efficiency index – but gives a rating that is monetary based not energy based • Assumes a general heating level in house – two zones (one living area one other). Does not allow for actual temperature settings. • Hot water requirements based on floor area formula not occupancy • Incidental gains based on floor area not occupancy • Problem: Is this a sensible approach? • If occupancy changes then Rating would change, but it is difficult to compare actual readings with predicted. • Alcantar (2008) found problems with methodology for incidental gains etc • 2010 Regulations partly address issue with regard to occupancy – e.g. • if TFA > 13.9: N = 1 + 1.76 × [1-exp (-0.000349 × (TFA-13.9)² )] + 0.0013 × (TFA-13.9) if TFA ≤ 13.9: N = 1 • N is the assumed number of occupants, TFA is the total floor area of dwelling.

23. 2006 Regulations Dwelling Emission Rate is method of compliance- essentially the 2010 Regs are similar with only minor variations in detail • Criterion 1 • A Dwelling Emission Rating (DER) must be calculated taking due account of the U-values, the size, the types of heating etc using the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) • The DER must be shown to be less than the Target Emission Rating (TER) which is computed with the same size of building and U-values meeting those as specified in the Regulations. Essentially this is a derivative of the target U – value method • Details are shown in Section 2.1.11 of handout

24. 2006 Regulations Dwelling Emission Rate is method of compliance- essentially the 2010 Regs are similar with only minor variations in detail Criterion 2 – limits on design flexibility • Performance of the building must not be worse than a given standard. • gives considerable latitude in design – the old trade-off problem. • However criterion attempts to limit this type of trade-off – see pages 5 and 6 of the Approved Document Criterion 3 – Limiting effects of solar overheating • Requires that the effects of overheating in summer must be addressed

25. 2006 Regulations Dwelling Emission Rate is method of compliance- essentially the 2010 Regs are similar with only minor variations in detail Criterion 4 Quality of Construction • Criterion requires evidence of actual performance – e.g. changes arising from design modifications, quality of workmanship. Some of the requirements involve pressure testing the building to ensure they have achieved those used in the design specification. Criterion 5. Providing Information • Requires information on the maintenance and operation of the building to be made available.

26. Critique of the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) • Standing charge ignored for electricity, included for gas. Oil doesn’t have a fixed charge • Can lead to some perverse consequences • Lower efficiency oil heating can give a higher SAP rating than more efficient gas • Energy Cost Deflator is needed • Unnecessary complication that allows for inflation • But does not allow for differential prices changes between fuels • SAP 1995 – possible SAP rating of over 110 • SAP of 100 readily achievable • SAP 2001 – widened scale (over 120) for consistency with existing scale • SAP 2005 changed scale to have 100 for zero energy house – means all previous calculation have to be redone. • Now possible to get > 100 if a house is carbon negative – i.e. will be exporting more energy than it consumes.

27. CALCULATION of SAP RATING • While the Standard Assessment Procedure makes sense the final Rating known as the SAP Rating creates problems • The SAP rating is related to the total energy cost by the equations: • Energy Cost Factor (ECF) = deflator × total energy cost / (TFA + 45) (10) • The total energy running cost includes not only heating but also requirements for hot water, lighting etc as well as pumps/fans associated with heating. These are proscribed costs according to a table which are not actual costs. • The deflator is a factor which varies according to energy costs and is intended to keep SAP Ratings constant with time irrespective of changes in fuel prices - this has not been the case in the past.

28. CALCULATION of SAP RATING 2010 • First work out the Energy Cost Factor (ECF) • where ECF = deflator × total energy cost / (TFA + 45) and TFA is the total floor area of the dwelling. [the energy cost factor initially has been set at 0.47] • if ECF >= 3.5, SAP 2009 = 117 – 121 x log10(ECF) • if ECF < 3.5, SAP 2009 = 100 – 13.95 x ECF Note (q) on page 151 of the SAP document indicates deflator will change to keep SAP Rating constant overall but that for individual fuels the Rating will vary.

29. Impact of Changing Methodology on SAP Rating These changes are relatively small compared with changes in previous methodology changes – i.e. 1995 – 2001 and 2001 – 2006. However these demonstrate the problem of using Economic Cost as a Key Factor in determining the SAP Rating

30. Climatic Issue with 2010 Calculations Calculations have to take account of Climate Variations of Solar Gain for Assessment of Cooling Requirements But NOT Heating (even though heating requirements will vary by up to +/-25% from one part of country to another Benefit of Solar Panels does not account for geographic variations in solar radiation even though this information is available for coolign calculations.

31. Effective changes in SAP 1995 rating with specific changes Sources: Monahan, J (2002) MSc Dissertation UEA; Turner, C. (2003) BSc Dissertation UEA

32. Improvements for 2010 - Environmental Impact Rating (EI) Calculating the TER • TER2010= (Ch x FF x EFAh + ClxEFAl) x (1–0.2)* (1 – 0.25) 25% improvement on 2005  • Where Ch is the energy requirements for space heating and hot water including any used in circulating pumps, Clis the energy use for lighting FF is a fuel factor EFA is the relevant Emission Factor Adjustment and is a ratio of the emission factors used in the 2009 calculations divided by the equivalent ones in the 2005 calculations.

33. Improvements for 2010 - Environmental Impact Rating (EI) • Carbon Factor (CF) = (CO2 emissions) / (TFA + 45) where TFA is the Total Floor Area • if CF >= 28.3 EI rating = 200 – 95 x log10(CF) • if CF < 28.3 EI rating = 100 – 1.34 x CF where the CO2 emissions are calculated according to the Standard Assessment Procedure • The EI rating is essentially independent of floor area • It will vary slightly depending on actual plan shape • A house with zero emissions will have the EI at 100 • An EI > 100 if a house is a net exporter of energy. • Primary energy requirements are also calculated in a similar way to CO2 emissions.

34. Improvements for 2010 - Environmental Impact Rating (EI) • Letter Rating bands are assigned as follows It applies to both the SAP rating and the Environmental Impact rating (why the SAP Rating??). Rating Band

35. How has the performance of a typical house changed over the years? • Original Construction • Brick – brick cavity walls • Metal windows • Solid floor no insulation • No loft insulation Bungalow in South West Norwich built in mid 1950s

36. Changing Energy Requirements of House First attempt to address overall consumption. SAP introduced. House constructed in mid 1950s Part L first introduced ~>50% reduction In all years dimensions of house remain same – just insulation standards change As houses have long replacement times, legacy of former regulations will affect ability to reduce carbon emissions in future 36

37. Changing Energy Requirements of House As Existing but with oil boiler House constructed in mid 1950s Existing house – current standard: gas boiler Improvements to existing properties are limited because of in built structural issues – e.g. No floor insulation in example shown. House designed to conform the Target Emission Rate (TER) as specified in Building Regulations 2006 and SAP 2005.

38. Issue of Fuel Choice for carbon reduction Example: Heat house with condensing gas boiler ~ 90% efficient For each unit (kWh) of heat provided. • 1/0.9 = 1.11 units of gas must be supplied • Carbon associated with this ~ 0.21 kg • Direct electric heating ~ 0.52 kg • Heat Pump with Coefficient of Performance of 4 • Carbon emission associated = 0.52/4 = 0.13 • A 38% saving over gas. • Note some people claim higher savings based on incorrect DEFRA carbon factor of 0.43 • Improved performance of heat pumps is possible with under floor heating

39. Changing Carbon Dioxide Emissions As Existing but with oil boiler House constructed in mid 1950s Existing house – current standard: gas boiler Notice significant difference between using gas and oil boiler. House designed to conform the Target Emission Rate (TER) as specified in Building Regulations 2006 and SAP 2005. 39

40. N.K. Tovey (杜伟贤) M.A, PhD, CEng, MICE, CEnv Н.К.Тови М.А., д-р технических наук Energy Science Director CRedProject HSBC Director of Low Carbon Innovation Code for Sustainable Homes Responding to the Challenge Recipient of James Watt Gold Medal 40 40

41. The Future: Code for Sustainable Homes • Introduced over next few years to improve standards to ultimate “zero carbon house” • But objectives of a low carbon future may be jeopardised if attention is not also paid to sustainable transport associated with new dwellings Data for 1 household with 2 cars

42. The Code For Sustainable Homes • The Code for Sustainable Homes is a set of sustainable design principles covering performance in nine key areas. 9 key areas of performance…. • Energy and CO2 • Water • Materials • Surface water run-off • Waste • Pollution • Heath and well being • Management • Ecology http://www2.env.uea.ac.uk/cred/harrisongroup/Code_for_Sustainable_Homes.htm

43. Code for Sustainable Homes: Certificates Code Assessed. This house gets 5* Non Assessed Code is voluntary at present, but a NIL Certificate is needed if assessment is not done

44. Code for Sustainable Homes: Certificates

45. Relative Weighting of different Code categories

46. Minimum Standards for Energy and Water

47. Credits gained for different improvements Dwelling Emission Rate DER (Maximum 15 credits)

48. Roadmap to 2016 • Major progressive tightening of the minimum energy performance standards in building regulations - by • 25 % in 2010, • 44 % in 2013 – • up to the zero carbon target in 2016.

49. What Does Zero Carbon Mean? • Where the net carbon emissions from all energy used in the dwelling are zero or better. • Where the heat Loss Parameter is 0.08 W/m2K –an indicator of exemplar building fabric • Off site energy must be private wire –connected to the site • Using a “Green” Tariff cannot be used to reduce carbon • Nor can purchase of offsets

50. Implications of Code on Carbon Dioxide Emissions House constructed in mid 1950s -10% -25% -44% -18% Code 5: Zero Carbon House for Heating/Hot Water and Lighting Code 6: Zero Carbon House overall but in reality is this achievable?