Chapter 3 Philosophy and Leisure

1. Chapter 3 Philosophy and Leisure C H A P T E R 3 Philosophy and Leisure Donald J. McLean

2. What Is Philosophy? • The word philosophy comes to us from the ancient Greeks and means “the love of wisdom.” • Philosophy is important to both the academic study of leisure and the delivery of recreation services.

3. Five Branches of Philosophy • Modern philosophy is associated with five branches of inquiry, and each is relevant to both leisure researchers and practitioners: • Metaphysics • Epistemology • Logic • Aesthetics • Ethics

4. Metaphysics and Leisure • Metaphysics concerns fundamental questions about the nature of reality. • In the recreation and leisure literature, metaphysical issues have focused on whether leisure should be defined as a • state of being or • state of mind.

5. Metaphysics: Leisureas a State of Being • Leisure as a state of being reflects the traditional view that leisure depends on the judgments of others about whether the activities that we do and our living conditions qualify as leisure. • The ancient Greeks primarily thought of leisure as freedom from the necessity of work and engagement in ennobling activities such as music and philosophy.

6. Metaphysics: Leisureas a State of Mind • Leisure as a state of mind reflects the modern view that leisure is a subjective, psychological state rather than the actual activity that a person is doing or her or his life circumstances. • If leisure is a state of mind, when a person perceives an activity or situation as leisure, then it indeed is leisure.

7. Metaphysics: Problems If LeisureIs Viewed Only as a State of Mind • Sylvester argues that the dominant modern view of leisure as a state of mind opens the door to unacceptable behaviors and circumstances being classified as leisure. • If leisure is a subjective perception, then potentially any activity, including illegal and immoral acts, can be classified as leisure.

8. Metaphysics: Problems If LeisureIs Viewed Only as a State of Being • Leisure as a state of being is appropriate when activities need to be authentic or reflect real achievement such as visiting a historical site or competing at a sport. • But at times it is better that leisure activity simulates reality or achievement, such as by providing a subjective perception of risk rather than exposing participants to actual danger.

9. Epistemology and Leisure • Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines knowledge itself. • Epistemology deals with questions such as • the sources of our knowledge, • the types of things that it is possible for us to know, and • how certain we can be of our knowledge.

10. Epistemology: EmpiricismVersus Rationalism • Empiricism maintains that knowledge is derived from what we observe from senses. • Rationalism says that knowledge is generated from the ideas created in our minds.

11. Epistemology: QuantitativeVersus Qualitative • Leisure researchers are divided on whether empirical knowledge about leisure should come from quantitative data (numbers) or qualitative data (words). • Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are based on the assumption that knowledge about leisure should be derived from the collection of empirical data.

12. Epistemology: Rationalismand Theoretical Research • Theoretical research is based on applying philosophical analysis to ideas and concepts relating to recreation and leisure. • The classical conception of leisure of the ancient Greeks was created from rationalist methods or inquiry rather than empirical study of leisure behavior.

13. Epistemology: Rationalismand Theoretical Research • Modern scholars such as Josef Pieper have continued to advance our understanding of leisure and recreation using nonempirical methods of inquiry. • Theoretical research is particularly useful when we are dealing with questions concerning leisure values, such as whether the expansion of gambling opportunities has been beneficial.

14. Epistemology: Empiricaland Theoretical Research • Understanding complex social phenomena such as leisure and recreation requires both theoretical or philosophical analysis and empirical (quantitative and qualitative) research. • Although we may prefer a particular approach to understand leisure and recreation, we should be wary of excluding other methods of knowing.

15. Logic and Leisure • Logic is the branch of philosophy concerned with the principles and structure of reasoning. • Logic helps us determine whether our reasons properly support the conclusion that we make.

16. Logic: Leisure Research • The methods of leisure research, whether empirical or theoretical, depend heavily on the use of both deductive and inductive inferences to generate new knowledge about leisure and recreation. • Logic plays an important role in leisure research by demonstrating that the conclusion researchers draw are properly supported.

17. Logic: Leisure Practitioners • Leisure practitioners need to use both deductive and inductive reasoning to aid their decision making in management-related functions such as strategic planning, budgeting, and evaluation. • Practitioners also need to be able to justify their actions and decisions to various stakeholder groups by using informal logic and critical thinking.

18. Aesthetics and Leisure • Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature of beauty in relation to art and the natural environment. • Issues of aesthetics have played a significant role not only in cultural recreation but also in outdoor recreation, particularly in regard to wilderness areas.

19. Aesthetics: Wilderness • Authors such as Nash have noted that Western civilization’s attitude and treatment of wilderness have depended on whether nature is regarded as ugly and evil or as divinely beautiful. • Aesthetic values and judgments are important factors in the management of wilderness areas and have fostered growing interest in environmental aesthetics.

20. Ethics and Leisure • Ethics is the branch of philosophy that focuses on the study of moral theories, principles, and values and is important to the delivery of recreation and leisure services for several reasons: • Leisure service providers are likely to encounter many vexing ethical dilemmas during their careers. • Leisure service providers are often put in a position of trust when working with vulnerable populations. • Leisure service providers are expected to exercise a high degree of responsibility and provide healthful activities.

21. Ethics: Ancient Greek Philosophy The origin of the Western conception of leisure is closely connected to the ethics of the ancient Greeks. • The ancient Greek philosophers framed their discussions of ethics in terms of how people could best live their lives to find happiness. • Plato and Aristotle focused on questions of ethics (for optimizing the lifestyle of the individual) and politics (for optimizing the functioning of the state).

22. Ethics: Plato’s Theory of Leisure • Plato separated “good” leisure activities from “bad” ones. Only certain types of virtuous leisure were allowed, such as controlling storytelling and music. He was fearful of recreation that excited the emotions. • The legacy of Plato’s political philosophy is present in leisure services today: Recreational programming and activities for youth should contribute to positive character development. • Plato’s belief was that leisure and recreation are important tools for influencing individuals and society.

23. Ethics: Aristotle’s Philosophyof Leisure • Aristotle agreed with Plato that living the ideal lifestyle required following habits of living that were virtuous. • Aristotle’s concept of leisure was elitist. Slaves were not allowed the luxury of leisure because their labor was needed to provide for the leisure of the free male citizenry.

24. Ethics: Aristotle and Happiness Aristotle believed that happiness results from being the best that we can be. • The person who has the most rewarding lifestyle is the philosopher who is at leisure to develop his intellect to its highest capacity. • Human fulfillment results from achieving excellence from things we choose to do when we use our leisure correctly.

25. Ethics: Aristotle and Freedom Freedom is an important element of Aristotle’s concept of virtuous leisure. • We should seek freedom from material wants so that we can have time for leisure and not be enslaved by our work. • We should seek intellectual freedom to understand why virtuous leisure activities are good. • Freedom is the essential characteristic of any virtuous leisure activity.

26. Ethics: Contemporary Philosophyof Leisure • Modern society is work oriented. • The ancient Greeks were work averse. Work was only a necessity of life. They valued work primarily as a means of obtaining leisure. • Modern lifestyles appear to have reversed that equation because we tend to define ourselves by our work rather than our leisure.

27. Ethics: Weber’s Analysisof the Work Ethic • Weber’s concept of the work ethic refers to a cultural ideal that regards work as the most important activity in a person’s life. • New reverence for work arose from the Protestant Reformation. • It is work—not leisure—that makes life worth living, which culturally defines our modern conception of the good life.

28. Ethics: Russell’s Critiqueof the Work Ethic • Preindustrial societies were based on a “slave morality.” • Modern technology created an abundance of goods so that everyone could have a leisured lifestyle. • Leisure, however, continued to be reserved for the upper crust in society and denied to the working class. • Proposed a work-sharing arrangement to create a four-hour workday so that people could pursue cultural and intellectual interests.

29. Ethics: Pieper’s Critiqueof the Work Ethic • We no longer know what leisure is; we live in a totally work-oriented culture. • Liberal arts disciplines such as philosophy are treated as a type of “intellectual labor,” valued only for their usefulness for solving practical problems. • Knowledge for knowledge’s sake is devalued by the culture of work. • Our leisure time is useful if it refreshes us so that we can resume our work with renewed vigor. • Our worship of work produces a meaningless, unsatisfying lifestyle. • We live to work well, rather than working so that we can live well.

30. Ethics: Veblen’s Critiqueof Consumption • Veblen defined ostentatious displays of wealth as “conspicuous consumption.” He criticized the super rich of his era—the Vanderbilts, Carnegies, and Rockefellers—as status seekers who used wealth amassed from 19th century business empires to give themselves an air of nobility. • In a consumer culture, success is measured by the luxurious and expensive goods that we own, which increase our social status.

31. Ethics: Loss of Social Capital • According to Putnam’s analysis, Americans are becoming increasingly isolated socially as they engage in more solitary leisure. • Membership in community organizations dropped dramatically at the end of the 20th century. • Americans have become less satisfied with their lives because they have experienced a decline in their social capital.

32. Ethics: Solving Ethical Dilemmas in Leisure Services • Socially responsible leisure service providers need to have a macro, or big-picture, understanding of the broad social and ethical issues that affect the quality of people’s leisure lives. • But leisure service providers also need to be able to apply ethical analysis in micro settings when they deal with specific instances of moral dilemmas.

33. Ethics: Three Approachesfor Resolving Moral Dilemmas • Consequence-based ethics: weighing the consequences to maximize the overall good • Duty-based ethics: ranking duties and obligations to determine what is right • Virtue-based ethics: consulting one’s conscience and personal integrity

34. Ethics: Tanning Bed Case At a multipurpose community recreation center, patrons have indicated that they would like the recreation center to install tanning beds. • The staff considers the possible negative health effects. • Patrons are dismayed and even outright hostile over the staff’s decision to reject the equipment suggestion. Reflect on the scenario presented in the chapter. What are the ethical dilemmas? What is the plausible solution?

35. Summary The five branches of philosophy are important to both leisure research and leisure service provision by helping us to • reflect more deeply on questions of how leisure and recreation should be defined, • understand that our knowledge of leisure and recreation derives from both empirical and rational sources, (continued)

36. Summary (continued) • make our decision processes in both leisure research and leisure service provision more logical, • appreciate the significant role that aesthetics plays in the experiencing of leisure and the provision of leisure services, • ethically evaluate societal issues and problems relating to leisure and respond in positive ways to improve quality of life, and • address and resolve the ethical dilemmas that are encountered by leisure services providers.