Teaching Argumentation in Science Shirley Simon Institute of Education, University of London

1. Teaching Argumentation in ScienceShirley SimonInstitute of Education, University of London

2. Outline for the day • Introduction to argumentation in school science • Frameworks for constructing arguments • Groupwork Strategies • Teaching strategies: starting, prompts and writing frames • Planning a lesson • Evaluating arguments • Counter-arguments • Developing practice

3. Argument in science • Science requires the testing of ideas against a body of evidence and data derived from the material world • Many ideas in science are not self-evident, they have been derived through argumentation and controversy • Argumentation is a core activity in science

4. School science • The emphasis is often placed on what should be believed rather than why it should be believed. That is, on learning the established knowledge without regardless of the evidence on which it is based. • But do we want students to be unable to justify their scientific knowledge to others?

5. Argumentation in science education • An important task for science education is to develop students’ ability to understand and practice scientifically valid ways of arguing, enabling them to recognise not only the strengths of scientific argument, but also its limitations.

6. Developing the teaching of argumentation • Argument needs to be explicitly taught through suitable instruction, task structuring and modelling. Just giving students scientific or controversial socio-scientific issues to discuss will not prove sufficient to ensure the practice of valid argument.

7. Ideas and Evidence in science • Constructing scientific arguments using evidence • Engaging in activities that stimulate discussion

8. What evidence do we have for…? • Plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen during photosynthesis • Day and Night are caused by a spinning Earth • Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth’s axis • Living matter is made of cells • Lithium, sodium and potassium are similar elements

9. What’s the evidence • In pairs, complete the sheet ‘What’s the Evidence?’, then join up with another pair and compare notes • Provide evidence to support the belief • Provide an argument for each claim

11. Photosynthesis • The standard evidence that plants give off oxygen is to collect the gas given off by elodea in a jar when illuminated by light. The gas will then relight a glowing splint showing it to be oxygen. The evidence that they take in carbon dioxide is hard to show in school science and much more indirect. Normally, we conduct a starch test on a leaf which has been exposed to light and one that has not. By inference the absence of starch in the covered leaf is used to argue that the photosynthesis is a process of taking in carbon dioxide to construct more complex molecules.

12. A spinning Earth • Evidence for this is provided by a photograph taken with a long exposure to the Pole Star. This shows all the stars going round the pole star. Either all the stars are rotating around the Pole Star or the ground on which the camera sits is turning. The second argument is chosen as it is simpler.

13. Why we believe the Earth spins?

14. Constructing arguments and groupwork strategies

15. Argument activities • Materials: • Competing theories • Constructing an argument • Classification • Experimental data • Predicting, observing and explaining • Discussing the nature of evidence

16. Competing Theories • Theory 1: Light rays travel from our eyes onto the objects and enable us to see them. • Theory 2: Light rays are produced by a source of light and reflect off objects into our eyes so we can see them. • Light travels in straight lines • We can still see at night when there is no sun • Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes • If there’s no light we cannot see a thing • We ‘stare at’ people, ‘look daggers’ and watch people’s eye’

17. Supporting statements • Light travels in straight lines – supports neither • We can still see at night when there is no sun – supports T1, except in a totally dark place • Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes – supports T2 as stops light coming in to eyes • If there’s no light we cannot see a thing – supports T2 • We ‘stare at’ people, ‘look daggers’ and watch people’s eye’ – supports T1

18. A simple argument • We must see because light enters the eye. You need light to see by. After all, otherwise we would be able to see in the dark.

19. Stronger argument • Seeing because light enters the eye makes more sense. We can't see when there is no light at all. If something was coming out of our eyes, we should always be able to see even in the pitch dark. Sunglasses stop something coming in, not something going out. The only reason you have to look towards something to see it is because you need to catch the light coming from that direction. The eye is rather like a camera with a light sensitive coating at the back which picks up light coming in, not something going out.

20. Constructing an argument • Look at the activity ‘Heating Ice to Steam’. • Assemble the points into a coherent argument that explains which graph is likely to be observed when the experiment is undertaken.

21. Organising small group discussion • Organising small groups – what size should we use? • What group composition? • How should we structure discussion e.g. listening triads, pairs to fours, envoys?

22. Concept cartoons • In threes, use the snowman cartoon and discuss using Listening Triads • One person talks, explaining which statement they believe to be correct • One asks questions • One records

24. Groupwork strategies • Pair talk • Pairs to fours • Listening triads • Envoys • Rainbow groups • Role play

25. Problems during groupwork • One or two students in each group are not contributing • One group is stuck and looking bored and awkward • When you join the group they stop talking • You were hoping for an argument and opposition but they all seem to have come to agreement very quickly • You allowed 15 minutes for the activity but they seemed to have finished it in 5 minutes • They all seemed to have had a good discussion but when it comes to feedback, nobody wants to say anything

26. Successful Discussions • For success, discussion must be: • Planned • Have clear, explicit outcomes • Have precise time limits • Engage all students • Have a clear concrete focus • Lead to some other task

27. Teaching Argument • What are the Learning Goals? • How should the activity be structured? • How long should it be? • What are the student outcomes? • How can argumentation be facilitated? • How do argumentation skills develop?

28. Getting an activity started • Clip 10 – Euglena activity • Clip 11 – using the cards • Clip 12 - Snowmen

29. Sustaining and Supporting Argument • Providing resources • Arguing prompts • Scaffolding argument (Sue clip 18) • Using writing frames (Sue clip 23)

30. Arguing prompts • Why do you think that? • What is your reason for that? • Can you think of another argument for your view? • Can you think of an argument against your view? • How do you know? • What is your evidence? • Is there another argument for what you believe?

31. Writing frames • My idea is that… • My reasons are that… • Arguments against my idea might be that… • I would convince somebody that does not believe me by… • The evidence I would use to convince them is that…

33. Rounding off argument • Clip 20 – plenary session to draw out students’ arguments and discuss.

34. Planning a lesson • What are the Learning Goals? • How should the activity be structured? • How long should it be? • What are the student outcomes?

35. Zoo Activity • How would you plan a discussion lesson using the Zoo Activity? • This activity is an opportunity to engage in argumentation about a socio-scientific issue. The issue is described in a letter distributed to the students and they are asked to argue for and against an issue in small groups – in this case, the funding of a new zoo – and provide justifications for their point of view.

37. Model arguments • Construct an argument based on the Zoo activity • Share with other groups using envoys

38. Evaluating Arguments • What criteria would you use for evaluating the content of students’ arguments? • Clips 8 and 9

39. Competing Theories • Theory 1: Light rays travel from our eyes onto the objects and enable us to see them. • Theory 2: Light rays are produced by a source of light and reflect off objects into our eyes so we can see them. • Light travels in straight lines • We can still see at night when there is no sun • Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes • If there’s no light we cannot see a thing • We ‘stare at’ people, ‘look daggers’ and watch people’s eye’.

41. A simple argument • We must see because light enters the eye [claim]. You need light to see by [data]. After all, otherwise we would be able to see in the dark [warrant].

42. Stronger argument • Seeing because light enters the eye makes more sense [claim]. We can't see when there is no light at all [data]. If something was coming out of our eyes, we should always be able to see even in the pitch dark [rebuttal]. Sunglasses stop something coming in, not something going out [data]. The only reason you have to look towards something to see it is because you need to catch the light coming from that direction [rebuttal]. The eye is rather like a camera with a light sensitive coating at the back which picks up light coming in, not something going out [warrant].

44. Evaluating student work • How does the quality of students’ arguments compare? • Which student’s argument is stronger? • Which student’s argument is weaker? • What do these samples illustrate about students’ understanding of argument?

45. The importance of counter-argument • One of the skills of arguing is being able to argue against somebody else’s ideas. The simplest kinds of arguments against another’s argument are counter claims. These do not advance an argument. Rather they simply provide an oppositional claim that does not demonstrate how the other person’s data, warrant or backing is false. Children tend to use these often. Better arguments use rebuttals, or counter arguments, which rebut the grounds – that is the data, warrants or backing of somebody else’s argument.

46. Counter-arguments • There is no clear link between CO2 levels and global temperature. • It is much more energy intensive to produce a tin can than paper. • Your grandmother is an exception. On average the evidence shows that people who smoke die younger. • The soil provides essential nutrients only. Plants will grow in water with no soil (hydroponics). • Does keeping animals in a cage justify the limited educational value of zoo?

47. Teaching argumentation • Talking and listening • Meaning of argument • Positioning • Justifying with evidence • Constructing • Evaluating • Counter-arguing/debating • Reflecting

48. Learning to teach argumentation • Develop a rationale for teaching argumentation • Understand the meaning of argument • Resources to try out • Strategies for teaching – groupwork, starting, sustaining, finishing argumentation. • Sharing experiences – community of practice • Reflection – cyclical activity

49. IDEAS training sessions • Introducing argument • Managing Small Group Discussions • Teaching Argument • Resources for Argumentation • Evaluating Argument • Modelling Argument

50. IDEAS resources • Booklet of 15 argument lessons • DVD of lesson video clips that relate to the sessions