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Chapter 26

Chapter 26. The Futile Search for a New Stability: Europe Between the Wars, 1919 - 1939. An Uncertain Peace: Search for Security. Weaknesses of the League of Nations U.S. did not join Only weapon against aggression was economic sanctions

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Chapter 26

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  1. Chapter 26 The Futile Search for a New Stability: Europe Between the Wars, 1919 - 1939

  2. An Uncertain Peace: Search for Security • Weaknesses of the League of Nations • U.S. did not join • Only weapon against aggression was economic sanctions • U.S. & G.B didn’t form defensive alliances with France • The French Policy of Coercion (1919 – 1924) • Desire for strict enforcement the Treaty of Versailles • France forms alliance with Little Entente (Czech, Yugoslavia, Romania) • Allied Reparations Commission, April 1921 $33 billion • Paid in annual installments of 2.5 billion gold marks • Germany unable to pay in 1922 • French occupation of the Ruhr Valley • Chief industrial & mining center • German government begins printing money to pay debt • German mark fall to 4.2 trillion to $1, end of November 1923

  3. The Little EntenteFrance allies with Czech, Yugoslavia, & Romania

  4. Possible Test Question • French policy toward a defeated Germany following World War I was guided by all of the following except • A strict enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles. • Occupation of German industries in the Ruhr Valley. • A strict collection of Germany’s war reparations. • A policy of passive resistance under Raymond Poincare. • The establishment of a series of alliances with the new states of Eastern Europe.

  5. The Hopeful Years (1924 – 1929) • Dawes Plan, 1924 • Reduced reparations on Germany’s ability to pay • $200 million loan for German recovery (from U.S.) • Led to more investment from U.S. • Treaty of Locarno, 1925 • Guaranteed Germany’s new western borders with France & Belgium • Spirit of Locarno – viewed as the start of a new era in European peace • Germany is admitted into the League of Nations • 1924-1929 – growing spirit of optimism for a peaceful future • Coexistence with Soviet Union • Western countries established diplomatic relations with the new communist government

  6. Possible Test Question • The treaty of 1925 that guaranteed France and Belgium’s postwar boundaries was called the • Pact of Paris. • Kellogg-Briand Treaty. • Dawes Plan. • Milan Treaty. • Locarno Pact.

  7. The Great Depression • Problems in domestic economies • Loan debt, strength of unions, & trade tariffs • International financial crisis • Crash of the American stock market, October 1929 • American investors pulled $ out of European markets to cope with losses in American Stock market • Downturn in domestic economies • Overproduction causes a drop in agricultural prices (wheat) • Cheaper energy sources (oil & electricity) lead to a slump in coal industry • Unemployment • Germany 40%, Britain & U.S. 25% • Banks failed, industrialists scaled back production

  8. Possible Test Question • A major cause of the Great Depression in Europe was • European governments were too involved in their own economies. • The recall of American loans from European markets. • The underproduction and high prices of agricultural goods in eastern and central Europe. • The inability of the League of Nations to set complementary economic policies different global markets. • Weimar Germany’s high tariff policies that prohibited trade with other nations.

  9. Social Repercussions • Women obtained menial jobs as servants & housekeepers • Men remained unemployed & grew resentful (opens the door for dynamic leaders to influence them) • Powerlessness of Governments • Governments became more involved in economy (end of laissez-faire) • Growing trend of communism • Overall effect of the Great Depression in Europe was a rise in authoritarian movements

  10. The Democratic States • Great Britain • Labour Party failed to solve problems • Coalition (Liberals & Conservatives) claimed credit for prosperity • Got them out of the worst stages of the depression • John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) • Keynes says the government should create jobs (public works) • Deficit spending would create jobs and thereby increase demand for goods

  11. France • Conservative National Bloc government led by Raymond Poincare • Took a hard stance against Germany (reparations & Ruhr occupation) • Could not solve financial problems (Poincare stabilized the economy from 1926-1929) • Great Depression brought political chaos • Popular Front (coalition of Socialists & Radicals) was formed in 1936 out of fear of extremists • French “New Deal” – Established 40 hour work week, collective bargaining, two week vacations, & minimum wage • Policies helped a little but failed to solve the problems of the Depression

  12. Possible Test Question • The first Popular Front government in France • Solved the depression by eliminating workers’ benefits. • Gave ordinary workers new rights and benefits including a minimum wage. • Was responsible for solving the problems of the depression. • Collapsed in 1926, allowing Raymond Poincare’s Cartel of the Left to take power. • Remained in power until the German invasion of 1942.

  13. The United States • Herbert Hoover, (1929-1933) • Franklin D. Roosevelt, (1933-1945) • New Deal • Provided social reforms that helped avert a possible social revolution • Public works projects • Brought partial economic recovery • World War II ends the depression • Full employment to do wartime industries

  14. Possible Test Question • Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal policies in the United States • Were successful by 1933. • Virtually eliminated unemployment. • Brought about government ownership of most industries. • Brought about a partial economic recovery, but full employment did not result until WWII rearmament in the economy. • Were all declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

  15. European States and the World: Colonial Empires • Despite WWI, Europeans kept their colonial empires • France & G.B. even added to theirs by dividing Germany’s colonial possession • Political and social foundations and the self-confidence of European imperialism was undermined during the 1920s and 1930s. • Rising tide of unrest in Asia and Africa against imperialism • Increasing worker activism, rural protest, rising national fervor

  16. The Middle East • Division of Ottoman Empire • New regimes in Turkey & Iran • European influence remained strong in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan & Palestine • Turkey • Colonel Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk – “Father Turk”) (1923) • Made a conscious effort to adopt a Westernized secular culture after WWI • India • Mohandas Gandhi (1869 – 1948) • Used civil disobedience against British imperialism to win self rule for India • Africa • Protest movements • Demands for independence from colonial rule came from Africans who were educated in Europe and the United States

  17. Possible Test Question • All of the following are correct about the European nations and their colonial empires during the interwar years except • Despite World War I, the Europeans had kept their colonial empires in tact. • Britain and France had added to their empires by dividing up many of Germany’s colonial possessions. • The political and social foundations and the self-confidence of European imperialism was strengthened during the 1920s and 1930s. • The political and social foundations and the self-confidence of European imperialism was undermined during the 1920s and 1930s. • There was a rising tide of unrest in the colonial world against Western imperialism.

  18. Retreat from Democracy: The Authoritarian and Totalitarian States • Totalitarianism • By 1939 only France and Great Britain are only major democratic states in Europe • Totalitarianism regimes in Germany, Italy, & the Soviet Union Hoped to control every aspect of their citizens’ lives • The modern totalitarian state • Active commitment of citizens • Mass propaganda techniques • High speed communication – radio, film • Led by single leader and single party

  19. Fascist Italy • Impact of World War I • Italians angry over failure to receive territory after World War I • Received Trieste, wanted Fiume & Dalmatia (went to Yugoslavia) • Fascist movement aided by nationalistic resentment toward Italy’s treatment following WWI • Birth of Fascism • Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) • Growth of the socialist party – largest party spoke of a revolution • Squadristi, armed bands of Fascists who used violence to intimidate enemies • attacked socialist offices & newspapers • Fascist movement gains support from industrialists (squadristi were breaking up strikes, protecting capitalism) • March on Rome, 1922 • King Victor Emmanuel made Mussolini Prime Minister • The next day, Mussolini’s blackshirts marched on Rome to give the illusion of a military take over • Italy becomes the first fascist state in Europe

  20. Possible Test Question • The growth of Mussolini’s Fascist movement was aided by • The inability of the parliamentary parties to form permanent government. • Popular, nationalistic resentment toward Italy’s treatment following World War I. • Crop failures in 1920 and 1921. • Economic cooperation between Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union. • The fall of the Italian monarchy and the establishment of a workers’ dictatorship.

  21. Mussolini and the Italian Fascist State • Fascist Government • All parties outlawed, 1926 – Fascist dictatorship established • Government censorship enforced by OVRA – secret police • Mussolini’s view of a Fascist state • Unity, values, state above all else • “Mussolini is always right!” – propaganda slogan • Young Fascists • Program to indoctrinate young people to fascist ideals • Family is the pillar of the state • Reinforced stereotypes about women • Women should stay home and make babies • Mussolini’s Fascist Italy never achieves the degree of totalitarianism like Germany or Soviet Union • Lateran Accords, February 1929 • Established Vatican City • Provided Funding • Established Catholicism as the state religion

  22. Possible Test Question • The Lateran Accords of 1929 • Nationalized all church property. • Recognized Catholicism as the sole religion in Italy. • Marked the Catholic church’s official condemnation of the Fascist state. • Eliminated government support for the Catholic church. • Turned the property of the Vatican over to the Italian government in exchange for the tax reductions.

  23. Hitler and Nazi Germany • Weimar Germany • No outstanding leaders • Paul von Hindenberg elected president, 1925 • Great Depression • The Emergence of Adolf Hitler • Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) • Vienna • Influenced by politics & ideology (anti-semitism & German nationalism) • Moved to Munich & fought for Germany in WWI • The Rise of the Nazis • German Workers’ Party • Took control of party • Renamed it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), 1921 (Nazis) • Sturmabteilung (SA), Storm Troops

  24. Hitler and Nazi Germany (cont) • The Nazi Seizure of Power • Munich Beer Hall Putsch, November 1923 • Attempted takeover of Germany, modeled after Mussolini’s fascist takeover of Italy • Hitler imprisoned • Wrote Mein Kampf, (My Struggle) • Autobiography outlining Hitler’s ideology of Aryan supremacy & anti-Semitism • Lebensraum (living space) (linked to Social Darwinism) • Reorganization of the party • New strategies • Focused on taking power through constitutional means

  25. Nazi party largest in the Reichstag after 1932 election • Successful in making the Nazi party appeal to all segments of German society • Support from right-wing elites • Becomes chancellor, January 30, 1933 • Reichstag fire, February 27, 1933 • Successes in 1933 election • Enabling Act, March 23, 1933 • Amendment to the Weimar Constitution • Provided legal basis for Hitler’s acts • Gleichschaltung, coordination of all institutions under Nazi control • Night of the Long Knives • Hitler has Ernst Rohm and other SA leaders killed • President Paul von Hindenburg dies, August 2, 1934

  26. Possible Test Question • The German president at the time of Hitler’s maneuvers to gain political power over Germany was • Heinrich Bruning. • Paul von Hindenberg. • Franz von Papen. • Herman Goring. • Friedrich Ebert.

  27. The Nazi State (1933-1939) • Parliamentary republic dismantled • Mass demonstrations and spectacles to create collective fellowship • Nuremberg was the largest annual demonstration • Constant rivalry in politics gives Hitler power • Economics and the drop in unemployment • Controlled the working class through mandatory membership in Nazi-sponsored German Labor Front • Helped the economy by government spending rearming Germany • Heinrich Himmler and the SS • Controlled the secret police and later the death camps • Carried out the racial and terrorist policies of the Nazis • Used the SS for terror & ideology

  28. Churches, schools, and universities brought under Nazi control • Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) and Bund deutscher Mädel (League of German Maidens) • Influence of Nazi ideas on working women • Expected to be housewives and child bearers • Aryan Racial State • Nuremberg laws, September 1935 • Separated Jews from Germans politically, socially & legally • Kristallnacht, November 9-10, 1938 • Organized riots against Jewish businesses and synagogues • Restrictions on Jews

  29. Possible Test Question • Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies in the 1930s • Included the Nuremberg laws, which centered on the forced emigration of all Jews from Germany. • Were emulated in France by the Popular Front. • Did not exclude Jews from legal, medical, and teaching positions. • Would remain minimal and unorganized until World War II. • Reached their most violent phase during Kristallnacht, with attacks on Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues.

  30. The Soviet Union • New Economic Policy • Modified form of the capitalist system (NEP) • Peasants and small show keepers could sell products • Saved economy from collapse • Union of Socialist Republics established, 1922 • Revived economy • Lenin suffers strokes, (1922-1924) • Division • Leon Trotsky • Military leader • Goes into hiding after Stalin takes over • Joseph Stalin • General Party Secretary – appointed regional Communist positions, which aided his emergence as the leader of the Communist party

  31. Possible Test Question • Lenin’s New Economic Policy in the early 1920s • Put Russia on the path of rapid industrialization at the expense of the peasantry. • Was a modified form of the capitalist system. • Forced Communism to move forward as both industry and agriculture were nationalized. • Failed to reverse the patterns of famine and industrial collapse that began in 1921. • Established giant collective farms.

  32. The Stalinist Era, (1929-1939) • First Five Year Plan, 1928 • Emphasis on industry • Real wages declined • Use of propaganda • Rapid collectivization of agriculture • Famine of 1932-1933; 10 million peasants died • Political Control • Stalin’s dictatorship established, 1929 • Political purge, 1936-1938; • Millions of ordinary citizens arrested and sent to force labor camps in Siberia. • 8 million arrested, millions never returned

  33. Possible Test Question • The Stalinist era in the 1930s witnessed • The decline of industrialization in favor of the collectivization of agriculture. • Real wages and social conditions for the industrial labor force improve dramatically. • Millions of ordinary citizens arrested and sent into force labor camps. • An abundance of permissive social legislation. • An activist foreign and military policy, bent upon immediately making Eastern Europe a satellite region to the Soviet Union.

  34. Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe • Conservative Authoritarian Governments • Dominant form of government in Eastern Europe in 1920s and 1930s • Eastern Europe • Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia adopted parliamentary systems • Czechoslovakia is the only eastern European nation to maintain political democracy in the 1930s • Romania and Bulgaria gained new parliamentary constitutions • Greece became a republic • Hungary parliamentary in form; controlled by landed aristocrats • Problems • Little or no tradition of liberalism and parliamentary form • Rural and agrarian society • Ethnic conflicts

  35. Possible Test Question • The dominant form of government in Eastern Europe in the 1920s and 1930s was • Authoritarianism. • Russian Soviet-style Communism. • Parliamentary democracy. • Christian Socialism. • Totalitarian Fascism.

  36. Dictatorship in the Iberian Peninsula • General Miguel Primo de Rivera and the End of Parliamentary Government (1923) • The Spanish Civil War • The Popular Front – anti-fascist group • General Francisco Franco (1892 – 1975) • Fascist military leader • Foreign intervention • Popular Front gets supplies from Soviets • Franco gets supplies and military help from Germany & Italy • Franco emerges victorious (March 28, 1939) • Establishes a conservative, authoritarian, and anti-democratic regime backed by the Spanish Catholic Church • The Franco Regime • Traditional, conservative, dictatorship • Portugal • Antonio Salazar (1889 – 1970) • Finance Minister and leader of military group that overthrows the government

  37. Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure • The Roaring Twenties • Decade named for its exuberant culture • Berlin, the entertainment center of Europe • Josephine Baker (1906-1975) • American Jazz singer • Became the symbol for the flapper generation • Jazz Age

  38. Radio and Movies: Mass forms of Communication & Entertainment • Radio • Discovery of wireless radio waves propels radio industry • Nellie Melba, June 16, 1920 – 1st radio broadcast of a live concert • BBC, formed in 1926 • Movies • Full length movies - Quo Vadis; Birth of a Nation • Stars became subjects of adoration • Marlene Dietrich • Popularized new images of women’s sexuality • Used for political purposes • Nazis encourage cheap radios & put speakers in the streets • Triumph of the Will, 1934 • Propaganda film from Nuremberg demonstration

  39. Mass Leisure • Sports • Growth of professional sports for mass audiences • Tourism • Passenger flights for the rich • Trains, buses and car travel for everyone else • Organized Mass Leisure in Italy and Germany • Dopolavoro in Italy – national recreation centers • Clubhouses with libraries, gyms, radios, theaters • Strengthened public support for the fascist regime • “Strength Through Joy” in Germany • Coordinated and monitored working class leisure time • Concerts, operas, films, tours & sporting events • Built public support for Nazi policies

  40. Possible Test Question • Dopolavoro was • A Spanish anti-Republican military organization. • A cultural club begun in England during the inter-war years. • A national recreational agency in Italy sponsored by Fascists as a way to strengthen public support of the regime. • A French radical political party advocating anarchy as the only solution to the corrupt government practices of the era. • The German secret police.11

  41. Cultural & Intellectual Trends in the Interwar Years • Prewar avant-garde culture becomes acceptable • Provoked by a disillusionment with Western Civilization provoked by the horrors of WWI. • Political, economic, and social insecurities • Radical changes in women’s styles • Short skirts, short hair, makeup • Theodor van de Velde • Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique • Discussed birth control & glorified sex for pleasure

  42. Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music • Abstract painting; fascination with the absurd • Dadaism • Tristan Tzara (1896-1945) • Expressed contempt for Western culture • Created “anti-art” to mock traditional culture • Celebrated chaos & absurdity of life • Popular artistic movement in Weimar Germany • Surrealism • Salvador Dali (1904-1989) • Depicted reality beyond the conscious world • Functionalism in Modern Architecture • Bauhaus School in Germany • Founded by Walter Gropius • Known for ideas of functionalism & practicality in architecture

  43. Dada artist Hannah Hoch, Cut with the kitchen Knife

  44. Surrealism, Salvador Dali, The Persistence of Memory

  45. Functionalism in architecture – Walter Gropius

  46. Frank Lloyd Wright

  47. Possible Test Question • The Dada movement in art was known for all of the following except • An expressed contempt for Western culture. • An effort to put a clear sense of purpose and ambition back into art and life. • “anti-art” and the mockery of all known, traditional forms of artistic expression. • A celebration of chaos and the absurd, often expressed in bizarre performances and collages of unrelated objects. • Popular in Berlin during the Weimar years.

  48. Possible Test Question • Walter Gropius was best known for his • “socialist realism” paintings. • Atonal, experimental music. • Revolutionary directions in theater. • Post-modern architectural designs. • Ideas of functionalism and practicality in architecture.

  49. Cultural & Intellectual Trends (cont) • A Popular Audience • Kurt Weill, The Threepenny Opera • Opera aimed at a lower class audience • Art in Totalitarian Regimes • Art in service of the state – propaganda • Culture in Nazi Germany centered around simple art with sentimental and realistic scenes used to glorify the Aryans

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