Crafting an Argument

1. Crafting an Argument ENG 101 / 2.12.14

2. Be Assertive • Too aggressive: • Of course only registered organ donors should be eligible for organ transplants. It’s selfish and shortsighted to think otherwise. • Too passive: • I might be wrong, but I think that maybe people should have to register as organ donors if they want to be considered for a transplant. • Assertive: • If only registered organ donors are eligible for transplants, more people will register as donors.

3. Social and Intellectual Contexts “Scholarly debates play out in the intellectual contexts, but they have a social dimension as well” (79) Research: be aware of the social and intellectual contexts of your argument/topic

4. Audience Don’t assume audience’s familiarity or that they’ll automatically agree with you Imagine audience as skeptical

5. Introduction • Introduce topic • Establish credibility • Show that you are knowledgeable and fair-minded • Thesis • Student example on p. 81

6. Support • Claims: persuasive parts of your line of argument • Evidence • Facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, etc. • Make sure source is expert

7. Counterarguments Look at checklist p. 85 Location of counterargument? What comes after counterargument? Importance? Devil’s advocate

8. Subjects for Argument • Good subject: • Concerns matter of opinion: a conclusion draw from evidence • Can be disputed: others might take a different position • Is something you care about • Narrow enough to argue in space and time available • Bad subject: • Cannot be disputed • Fact • Personal preference or belief • Few if any disagree over the topic

9. Parts of an Argument • Thesis • Issue + position + reasons = thesis • Language • Style • Tone • Counter argument/rebuttal • Acknowledgment and addressing of opposition • Assumptions • Evidence • Claims • Arguments that help support thesis

10. Evidence for an Argument • Facts • Verifiable statements • Statistics • Facts expressed in numbers • Examples • Specific cases • Expert opinions • Appeals • Ethos • Pathos • Logos

11. Evaluating Evidence • Accurate? • Trustworthy, exact, undistorted? • Relevant? • Authoritative, pertinent, current? • Representative? • True to context? • Accurate representation? • Adequate? • Plentiful, specific?

12. Logic If x, then y. X. Therefore, Y. All X’s are Z. A is an X. Therefore, A is Z. All bachelors are single. John is a bachelor. Therefore, John is single.

13. Avoiding Fallacies • Begging the question • Treating an opinion that is open to question as if it were already proved or disproved • Non sequitar • “it does not follow” – drawing conclusion from irrelevant evidence • Red herring • Introducing an irrelevant issue that distracts readers • False authority • Citing as expert opinion the views of someone who is not an expert • Inappropriate appeals

14. Fallacies cont’d • Hasty generalization • Too little evidence • Sweeping generalization • Asserting that an opinion applies to all instances when it may only apply to some (stereotypes) • Reductive fallacy • Oversimplification of cause and effect • Post hoc fallacy • Assuming that X caused Y because X came before Y • Either/or fallacy • Reducing a complicated question to only two alternatives • False analogy • Exaggerating similarities or ignoring key differences • Slippery slope

15. Counter Argument • Must include counter argument • Why? • Counter argument must include a brief summary of a significant point the opposition might bring up. Should be followed with a rebuttal (the turn back to your argument) • Use signal phrases • Some critics might disagree, contending that _____, but… • The opposition may claim _____; however… • It is true that many would disagree because…

16. Organizing Arguments The traditional scheme The problem-solution scheme Claim 1 and evidence The problem: claims and evidence Claim 2 and evidence The solution: claims and evidence Claim X and evidence Response to opposing views Response to opposing views Variations on the traditional scheme Use a variation if you believe your readers will reject your argument without an early or intermittent response to opposing views. Response to opposing views Claim 1 and evidence Claim 1 and evidence Response to opposing views Claim 2 and evidence Claim 2 and evidence Claim X and evidence Response to opposing views Claim X and evidence Response to opposing views

17. Using Research • Avoid “information dump” • Prove that you have found good information and understand it • Demonstrate your ability to apply the material • Take it to the next level • Critique • Connect • Interpret

18. Checklist for Revising an Argument • Thesis • What is your thesis? Where is it stated? • In what ways is your thesis statement an arguable claim? • Reasoning • If your thesis derives from induction, where have you related the evidence to your generalization? • If your thesis derives from deduction, is your syllogism both true and valid? • Have you avoided fallacies in reasoning? • Evidence • Where have you provided the evidence readers need? • Where might your evidence not be accurate, relevant, representative, or adequate?

19. Checklist cont’d • Appeals • Where have you considered readers’ probable beliefs and values? • How are your rational appeals and emotional appeals appropriate for your readers? • What is your ethical appeal? How can you improve it? • Opposing views • What opposing views have you answered? • How successfully have you refuted opposing views? • Organization • How clearly does your argument move from one point to the next? • How appropriate is your organization given your readers’ likely views?

20. Effective Conclusions • Intro and conc are framework • Conclusion is chance to have the last word – audience’s last impression of your work • Significance • So what? Who cares? • Return to things from intro • Propose course of action, solution to issue, or questions for further study • Point to broader implications

21. Strategies to Avoid • “In conclusion,” “in summary,” “to wrap up,” “all in all,” “in closing,” etc. • Introducing new topic or subtopic • Including new evidence that should be in body • Restatement of thesis • Big emotional appeals • Direct address to the audience • “The choice is yours…” • “Think about _____ next time…”