1. Repetition

2. Repetition • Conditional loops • while • do while • Counting loops • for loops • Arrays • Recursion

3. Loops

4. Loop Introduction • Loops allow statements to be repeated • The code to be repeated is in the loop body • One repetition of the body is called an iteration • Loops are structurally like if statements • The loop control statement(s) are contained in ()s after the keyword • The loop body is contained in {}s

5. While Loop • A while loop consists of the keyword while, a condition and a loop body • The condition is a Boolean expression • Just like an if statement condition • The loop iterates until the condition is no longer true (while it is true) • The loop body should include code that eventually makes the condition false • Or the loop will iterate for ever (an infinite loop)

6. Factorial Write a function that returns the factorial of the integer parameter: e.g. fact(5) = 5! = 5 * 4* 3 * 2 * 1 = 120 • // PRE: x must be a +ve integer • // Function that returns the factorial of x • long longfact(intx){ • long longresult = 1; • inti = 1; //loop control variable • while (i <= x){ • result = result * i; • i++; • } • return result ; • } don't put a ; here – it makes an empty loop i must be incremented in the loop The function does not handle –ve numbers Note the indentation of the statements in the function and the loop

7. While Flowchart • while statements contain a condition • If the condition is truethe body is executed • Then the condition is tested again • If the condition is false the program continues from the end of the loop body ... program ... condition true false Loop body Rest of program

8. Entry Condition • A while loop has an entry condition • If the condition is initially false the loop body will not be processed at all • Sometimes the first iteration should occur outside of and before the loop • So that the variable being evaluated in the condition can be initialized appropriately

9. Summing Numbers Write a function that sums numbers until the user enters 0 • // Function that returns the sum of values • // entered by the user • intsum(){ • intresult = 0; • int next; • printf("Enter a number, 0 to end"); • scanf("%d", &next); • while(next != 0){ • result += next; • printf("Enter a number, 0 to end"); • scanf("%d", &next); • } • return result ; • } Because next controls the loop it needs a value before the loop starts Although there are some alternatives: Initialize next to non-zero and then get input before adding to result, or Use a do ... while loop

10. Do While Loop • A do ... while loop's condition comes after the loop body • The loop body will iterate at least once • Whereas a while loop will not iterate at all if the condition is initially false • Any do ... while loop can be replaced by while • Possibly needing some extra statements before the loop statement • Some people prefer while loops because the condition comes first

11. Do While Factorial Write a function that returns the factorial of the integer parameter: e.g. fact(5) = 5! = 5 * 4* 3 * 2 * 1 = 120 • // PRE: x must be a +ve integer • // Function that returns the factorial of x • long longfact2(intx){ • long longresult = 1; • inti = 1; //loop control variable • do { • result = result * i; • i++; • } while (i <= x); • return result ; • } note the ; after the condition

12. Counting Loops • Loop bodies are often repeated a certain number of times • Rather than ending at an indeterminate time • e.g. factorial function, processing the values in a list • For loops can be used to iterate a given number of times • By incrementing an integer variable • And ending when the variable reaches a value • For loops can do anything that while loops can

13. For Factorial Write a function that returns the factorial of the integer parameter: e.g. fact(5) = 5! = 5 * 4* 3 * 2 * 1 = 120 • // PRE: x must be a +ve integer • // Function that returns the factorial of x • long longfact3(intx){ • long longresult = 1; • for (inti= 1; i <= x; i++){ • result = result * i; • } • return result ; • } The loop control statement consists of three statements initialization condition increment In this example the loop control variable is also declared in the initialization statement

14. Controlling For Loops Initialization • for statements consist of three expressions • Separated by ;s • Initialization • Executed once • Condition • Tested before the first iteration and • Each after each iteration • Increment • Applied after each iteration condition true Loop Body false Increment Rest of Program

15. More About for Loops • It is usual to use for loops as counting loops • Initialize the loop control variable • Test to see if the end of the count is reached • Increment the count (the loop control variable) • The for loop structure is much more general • An expression evaluated once at the beginning • A condition that is evaluated before each iteration • The body is only executed if the condition is true • An expression evaluated once after each iteration

16. Comma Operator • The comma operator evaluates a list of expressions returning the last expression • e.g. z = (x = 1, y = x + 1); • x = 1 is evaluated first (assigning 1 to x) • y = x + 1 is then evaluated (assigning 2 to y) • The comma expression returns the value of y • So z is also assigned 2 • It is most commonly used in for loops • To allow multiple initialization or increment statements

17. break and continue • The break and continue statements can be used to change flow of control • The break statement terminates the processing of a loop or switch statement • It ends evaluation of its enclosing body • And switches control to the next statement after the closing } • The continue statement terminates the processing of the current loop iteration • And then continues with the loop, first testing its condition • Like goto, continue and break can make programs harder to understand

18. Nested Loops • Like if statements, loops can be nested • One loop can contain another loop • The use of functions can make nested loops easier to understand • Particularly if one of the nested loops is placed inside a function • Nested loops may cause a program to run slowly • But may also be unavoidable

19. Which Loop? • There is a large element of choice • What you can do with one loop, you can do with another • For loops are a natural choice for counting with an index • While loops are a natural choice for indefinite iteration • Such as when the loop ends based on user input

20. Character Input and Output

21. Character I / O • The scanf and printf functions are generalized input and output functions • There are also specialized input and output functions • Particularly relating to characters and strings • The getchar and putchar functions are designed for character I/O

22. getchar() • The getchar() function takes no arguments and returns the next character from input charch; ch = getchar(); • getchar() will read any character, including whitespace characters • Note that pressing Enter still indicates that input should be processed

23. putchar() • The putchar(char) function prints its argument charch = 'a'; putchar(ch); • Neither getchar or putcharrequire format specifications • Since both functions work only with characters • Both functions are defined in stdio.h

24. Counting Letters Write a function that prints the number of 'e' characters in a sentence void e_count(){ charch; int count = 0; ch = getchar(); while(ch != '\n'){ if(ch == 'e'){ count++; ch = 'E'; } putchar(ch); ch = getchar(); } printf("\n\nYour input contained %d 'e's\n\n",count); }

25. Complex Expressions • The function shown previously has an initial call to getchar before the while statement • And contained a call to getchar in the loop body • These calls can be made in the while condition important! //... ch = getchar(); while(ch != '\n'){ //... ch = getchar(); } //... //... while((ch = getchar()) != '\n'){ //... } //... without the brackets

26. Character Functions • ctype.h contains character functions • There are two functions to change the case of a character • toLower(char) • If the argument is uppercase it returns the lowercase version, otherwise it returns the original argument • toUpper(char) • If the argument is lowercase it returns the uppercase version, otherwise it returns the original argument

27. More Character Functions • Test functions that return true (1) or false(0) • isalnum(char) – alphanumeric (alphabetic or numeric) • isalpha(char) – alphabetic • isblank(char) – space, tab or newline • iscntrl(char) – control character (like Ctrl+C) • isdigit(char) – digit • isgraph(char) – a printable character, except space • islower(char) – lowercase character • isupper(char) – uppercase character • ispunct(char) – punctuation • isprint(char) – a printable character • isspace(char) – a space • isxdigit(char) – a hexadecimal digit A printable character is one that can be printed – in contrast to a control character

28. Arrays

29. Arrays • Introduction • Array fundamentals • Declaring arrays • Indexing arrays • Initializing arrays • Arrays and functions • Keeping track of array size

30. Array Introduction • An array is a sequence of values of the same type • Like a list of values • Each value is a single element of the list • An array is a collection of values • The entire collection can be referenced, or • Its individual elements

31. Average Grades • Let’s say we want to write a program to input grades for a course • Assume that 44 students are registered • We will input each grade, one at a time and store them • Once the grades have been input we will use them to calculate the average grade

32. Average Grades … • In a world without arrays (or similar structures) we need a separate variable for each grade double grade1 = 0; double grade2 = 0; double grade3 = 0; … double grade42 = 0; double grade43 = 0; double grade44 = 0; Let's assume that these are global variables declared outside the main function

33. Average Grades … • We need to input the data into each variable • We also need to make sure that grades are entered in the correct variables if(count == 1) scanf(&grade1); else if(count == 2) scanf(&grade2); … else if(count == 44) scanf(&grade44); Assume that input is from the keyboard This big, ugly IF statement should go in an input function

34. Average Grades … • Assume that all of the grades have been entered • We can now calculate the average • Let’s make a separate function to do this • doublegetAverage() • Ideally, functions should be self contained • Input is passed using a parameter list • And the desired output is returned • But we would need 44 parameters for this function! • So, let’s just use the previously defined global variables

35. Average Grades … doublegetAverage (){ double sum = 0; sum += grade1; sum += grade2; sum += grade3; sum += grade4; sum += grade5; sum += grade6; sum += grade7; sum += grade8; sum += grade9; This is what the getAveragefunction would look like …

36. Average Grades … // … sum += grade10; sum += grade11; sum += grade12; sum += grade13; sum += grade14; sum += grade15; sum += grade16; sum += grade17; sum += grade18; sum += grade19; You can’t put this in a loop because the variable that is added is different each time

37. Average Grades … // … sum += grade20; sum += grade21; sum += grade22; sum += grade23; sum += grade24; sum += grade25; sum += grade26; sum += grade27; sum += grade28; sum += grade29; Good thing it’s not a class with 250 students in it or this would be really boring

38. Average Grades … // … sum += grade30; sum += grade31; sum += grade32; sum += grade33; sum += grade34; sum += grade35; sum += grade36; sum += grade37; sum += grade38; sum += grade39; Are we there yet?

39. Average Grades … // … sum += grade40; sum += grade41; sum += grade42; sum += grade43; sum += grade44; returnsum / 44; } Right, done, that’s it!

40. … And Finally … • Here is the same function, this time assuming that the grade data was stored in an array doublegetAverage(doublearr[], intsize){ double sum = 0; for(inti = 0; i < size; ++i){ sum += arr[i]; } return sum / size; }

41. What Is An Array? • An array variable is a collection of other variables • You can think of an array as something that contains variables • This is important because an integer array is not an integer, it is a collectionof integers • The items stored in an array (elements) are stored sequentially in main memory • This is an important implementation issue

42. Declaring Arrays • An array is declared with a type, and []s to indicate that the variable is an array • The type is the type of the contents of the array size of the array intscore[10] type of the data stored in the array brackets declare the variable as an array

43. Array Indexing • The elements of the array are accessed using an index • Indexes are the addresses of the elements • The first element always has an index of 0 • The last index is always array size – 1 • Array indexes follow the name of the array and are enclosed in []s • Individual array elements are used in exactly the same way as variables

44. Using an Array intarr[4]; int x; for(inti = 0; i < 4; ++i){ arr[i] = i + 1; } x = arr[2]; //access 3rd. element result of the statements shown above represents stack memory, where each cell represent 4 bytes

45. Initializing Arrays • Array elements have to be given values individually • Although this can be performed in a loop • There is a special shorthand notation for initializing arrays when they are declared • intarr[] = {1, 3, 7, 9}; • This shorthand notation is only allowed on the same line as the declaration

46. Array Size • Array size must be specified when the array is declared • It must be a literal (a number) or • A constant • The size can not be given using a variable • Therefore an array's size cannot change during the life of a program • It is specified at compile time

47. Arrays and Loops • Arrays are often processed using loops • Each element in an array is accessed in turn • The loop control variable is used as an index into the array • The loop terminates once every element of the array has been processed • When the loop control variable is equal to the size of the array

48. For Loops // Assume an int array named arr, // and a constant called ARR_SIZE // The loop prints the contents of arr for (inti = 0; i < ARR_SIZE; i++){ printf("%d\n", arr[i]); } The condition is i < ARR_SIZE because the last legal index is ARR_SIZE – 1

49. While Loops // Assume an int array named arr, // and a constant called ARR_SIZE // The loop prints the contents of arr inti = 0; while (i < ARR_SIZE){ printf("%d\n", arr[i]); i++; } A very similar loop to the for loop, don't forget to increment the index, i

50. Size as a Constant • It is much better to define array size as a constant than to use a literal value • If the programmer wants to change the array size this only needs to be done once • Use the constant whenever the array size is referenced, and • Avoid using magic numbers!