Sensitometry

1. Sensitometry Describing photographic performance

2. Objectives The student should be able to: • Describe the importance of the study • Define the relevant terms • Describe the methods of producing a sensitometric strip • Plot the characteristic curve • Describe the Features of the characteristic curve • Describe the importance & practical applications

3. Why is the study important? • To produce images with optimum contrast that reveal high details of the object examined. • Optimum contrast? • Low contrast (long scale contrast) • High contrast (Short scale contrast)

4. Photographic images Optimum contrast

5. High contrast

6. Low contrast

7. X-ray images

8. Introduction • Photosensitive materials (x-ray films) are used to record the invisible x-ray image • It is required to reproduce all the characteristics of the invisible image in visible form. • The films ability to do so depends on its sensitometric properties. • It is advantages to have a sound knowledge of sensitometric properties of x-ray films.

9. X-ray tube Plot of incident x-ray beam intensity Formation of Invisible x-ray image Object Plot of transmitted x-ray beam intensity Invisible x-ray image

10. Invisible x-ray image kV mA Sec FFD E Supporting tissue (m) B B1 T3 B2 T1 T2 Air E B1 E B2 ET1 Invisible X-ray image EM EM ET2 ET3 EA

11. What is Sensitometry? The scientific study of the response of photosensitive material to different levels of exposures. How is it done? Producing a sensitometric strip and plotting a characteristic curve.

12. What is Response of exposure & How is it manifested? • The response is the change that takes place, after exposure to electromagnetic radiation (light or x-rays), in the photosensitive emulsion on the film • The response of the film to exposures is manifested as a degree of blackening produced after chemical processing

13. How is degree of blackening quantified/measured? • In Radiography the degree of film blackening is quantitatively indicated by the term ‘Optical Density’. • The optical density describes how much a certain area of the film is opaque to light incident upon it .

14. Optical Density The optical density is expressed quantitatively as, Optical Density = Log10 Opacity It is measured by using the ‘Densitometer’ (The densitometer works on the following principle)

15. Consider the light transmitted through an area of a film Incident light intensity (Ii) Transmitted light intensity (It) Transmittance (Transmission ratio)= It / Ii Opacity = 1 / Transmittance = Ii / It Density = Log10 Opacity = Log10 Ii / It

16. Range of densities on a film 4 3 2 1 0

17. Sensitometric strip A film containing number of areas with different optical densities from white (fully transparent) to black (fully opaque)

18. How to produce a sensitometric strip and the characteristic curve? 1.Expose a film to different amounts of known exposures starting from a minimum and increasing at a known rate (ratio / wedge factor) up to a maximum. 2. Process the film 3. Measure the densities 4. Tabulate the result & Study the response by plotting a curve (density Vs Log relative exposure

19. Methods of exposing • Time scale method (using x-ray exposure) • Intensity scale method i. Using x-ray exposure ii. Using light exposure

20. Time scale method The film is exposed to different quantities of exposures using constant intensity and variable duration. (Quantity = Intensity x Time) Equipment required • X-ray machine • Cassette with film inside • Lead sheets • Processor • Densitometer • Graph paper

21. Procedure (time scale method) Constants kV, mA, FFD Variable Time X-ray tube Loaded cassette Areas to be exposed Loaded cassette Lead sheets

22. Exposure selection • Minimum exposure Low enough not to produce a measurable density • Maximum exposure High enough to produce a density around 3.0 • Increment Wedge factor (Ratio between two exposures) of 2 is adequate. (2½ can be used to get more levels) Alternatively the time steps available in the machine may be used to get more points on the graph

23. Making a single exposure using a calibrated step wedge X-ray machine a loaded cassette (The intensity of x-rays passing through the steps are different & the duration of exposure is the same) Intensity scale method 1 X-ray exposure

24. Intensity scale method 2 • The film is exposed to a series of different intensities of light for the same duration using an instrument called the “Sensitometer”. • The wedge factor is usually 2½ • The colour of light should match the spectral sensitivity of the film

25. Film obtained using time scale method

26. Plotting the curve

27. Plotting the curve

28. Characteristiccurve 4 Shoulder Density DMax 3 2 GF = Gross Fog Straight line portion 1 GF Toe 1 2 3 4 Log relative exposure

29. D-Max Shoulder Straight line portion GF Toe

30. (Features) Information obtainable • Gross fog (Basic fog) • Threshold • Contrast • Latitude (film latitude & exposure latitude) • Speed & Sensitivity • Maximum density • Reversal

31. Gross fog (Basic fog)& net density This is the density of the horizontal part of the curve at the minimum exposure level Gross fog = Base Density +Fog Base Density :- Density produced by the base material Fog :- Density produced by the development of silver halide crystals which have not received an intentional exposure Net density = Gross density – Gross fog

32. Characteristic curve (with net density) 4 Net Density Shoulder 3 2 Net density = gross density – gross fog 1 Toe 0 1 2 3 4 Log relative exposure

33. Threshold The region where the film emulsion begins to respond to the exposure • Contrast The rate of change of density for a given change of log relative exposure Contrast = ΔD / ΔE It is given by the slope (gradient) of the straight line portion of the curve. If it is a true straight line then the contrast is called Gamma. Since, in practice, the curve is not an exact straight line, the average gradient is taken as the contrast.

34. Contrast = ΔD/ ΔE ΔD ΔE

35. Average gradient 4 Density 3 Average gradient = BC/AC DY - DX = ----------- log EY – log EX How to select points A and B ? DY B 2 1 A C DX 1 2 3 4 Log EX Log EY Log relative exposure

36. Point A ? Point B ? A : DX = 0.25 above Basic fog B : DY = 2.0 above Basic fog • The densities from 0.25 to 2.0 is called the Useful Density range. • Useful density range is the density range in which the differences can be identified by the human eye. • The densities which represents different structures on a radiograph should lie within this range of densities.

37. Useful density range Average Gradient = Range of log relative exposures that produces the useful range of densities • Useful density range is the range of densities within which the human eye can recognize the small differences • That is the range of net densities from 0.25 to 2.0

38. Latitude Latitude is an expression of the tolerance of a system to extreme conditions of exposure. It refers to the ability of a film or film-screen system to record successfully a wide range of exposure . (considered in two parts) Film latitude&Exposure latitude • Film Latitude The difference between the upper and lower limits of log relative exposure which produce densities within the useful range

39. Significance of film latitude • The range of x-ray intensities transmitted through the body part should lie within the film latitude, if they are to be viewed as useful densities on the radiograph. • Any x-ray intensity that falls out side the film latitude will not reveal any information & a useful piece of information might be lost

40. 4 Density Film latitude & Average gradient 3 When Dx = 0.25+BF & Dy = 2.0 +BF DY - DX Average gradient = ----------- becomes log EY – log EX 1.75 = ------------------ Film latitude DY B 2 1 A C DX 1 2 3 4 Log EX Log EY Log relative exposure Film latitude

41. Exposure latitude This refers to the freedom of the radiographer to select slightly different exposures (to make room for errors) for a particular examination so that the resulted densities remains within the useful density range. Exposure latitude = film latitude – subject contrast (log relative exposurerange transmitted from a particular body part)

42. Subject contrast kV mA Sec FFD E B B Air E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7

43. e7 e1 Subject contrast

44. Image contrast e1 e7 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

45. Exposure latitude = film latitude – Subject contrast e1≥ X ; e7 ≤ Y Film latitude Subject contrast Exposure latitude X Y

46. Speed & Sensitivity • Sensitivity refers to the exposure required by a film or film-screen system to produce a net density of 1. • Sensitivity is expressed in miliroentgens (mR) • A high sensitive (have low mR value for sensitivity) or high speed system requires less exposure than that of a low sensitive or low speed system.

47. Numerically the Speed is proportional to the reciprocal of the sensitivity (mR) and is expressed as 128 Speed = -------------- Sensitivity (mR)

48. Comparison of Speeds of two films (film-screen systems) Density 4 B A 3 Speed A > Speed B Speed A α 1/ ESA Speed B α 1/ ESB Speed A ESB ------------- = ------ Speed BESA 1+BF 2 1 BF 1 2 3 4 Log ESA Log ESB Log relative exposure

49. As Log (ESB / ESA )= Log ESB - Log ESA Taking logarithms on both sides Log(Speed A / Speed B) = Log ESB - Log ESA If Log ESA = a , and Log ESB = b Log(Speed A / Speed B) = b – a Then Speed A / Speed B = antilog (b-a)

50. Maximum Density (DMax) The density produced when all the silver bromide crystals in the emulsion is exposed and developed • Reversal This is the region where the density reduces with the increasing exposure greater than that produce DMax