Community and Problem-Oriented Policing

1. Community and Problem-Oriented Policing Seventh Edition Chapter 1 Evolution: The Geneses of Community Policing

2. Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 1.1 The evolution and development of professional policing from its early use of volunteers in England to its modern-day practices in the United States. 1.2The characteristics of each of the three eras-political, professional, and community- of policing in the United States. 1.3 The foundations and strategies of both community policing and problem-oriented policing, to include contributions of the federal government.

3. Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 1.4 How empirical studies resulted in major changes in police and problem-oriented policing, to include contributions of the federal government. 1.5 How to distinguish the three generations of community policing and problem solving. 1.6 The contributions of community policing and problem solving to homeland security. 1.7 How, when viewing the entire history of policing, it may be said to have come full circle in tis contemporary emphasis on community.

4. Introduction • The concept of community policing is not altogether new • Community policing and problem solving policing are a collection of related ideas

5. British Contributions • Henry Fielding became London’s chief magistrate of Bow Street in 1748 • Wanted reform to the severe criminal code • Thief-takers, which later evolved to the Bow Street Runners, pursued criminals • Sir Robert Peel in 1829 passed a bill in Parliament which created Metropolitan Police Act • Stressed prevention of crime • Officers wore uniforms, carried rattles and batons, and had identifying numbers

6. Peel’s Principles of Policing (1 of 2) • Basic mission to prevent crime and disorder • Police need public approval and respect • Police need to secure cooperation of the public to observe the law • As the degree of cooperation diminishes, proportionately, the necessity for the use of force increases • Police must demonstrate absolute impartial service to the law

7. Peel’s Principles of Policing (2 of 2) 6. Police use of forces should only be as necessary to secure the observance of the law or to restore order 7. Concept the police are the public and the public are the police 8. Police are not to judge guilt or punish the guilty 9. The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder

8. Policing in America: The Political Era • Full-time professional policing in the U.S. commonly said to be New York in 1844 • Might consider slave patrols in the South as a form of policing • South Carolina in 1704 • Became the legal mechanism for social control

9. Early Beginnings • The New York Model • Industrialization in the U.S. 1840s • Political Era of policing- police officers were placed under the control of the city government and politicians • Selected based on political patronage and rewards for friends • Not based on best candidates • Reciprocal relationship between police and politicians • By 1880 every major American city had a police force based on Peel’s model, pioneered in New York City

10. From the East to the Wild, Wild West • Civil disorder swept the nation from 1840s to the 1870s • Riots caused by ethnic and racial conflicts, economic disorder, and public outrage • Westerners established peace by: • Private citizens, businessmen, vigilante committees, and town police officers • U.S. Marshals 1789 enforced federal laws • Sheriffs became important but spent a lot of time collecting taxes, inspecting cattle brands, maintaining the jails and serving civil papers

11. Politics and Corruption • Police still worked closely with politicians in the early 1900s • Did lead to police corruption • Police departments were involved in crime prevention, order maintenance, and social services • Police were decentralized and cities were divided into precincts • Encouraged foot patrol • Lack of organizational control and increase of “curbside justice” • Officers were usually the same ethnic as the dominant groups in a particular neighborhood • Police were integrated into neighborhoods • Resulted in discrimination

12. Emergence of Professionalism • 19th century police were a political operative • Little job security • Salaries were determined by local political factors • Primitive communication technology • Policy was influenced by political and social mores of neighborhoods • Police behavior was influenced by interactions between the individual officer and the individual citizen • Problem of police-community relations

13. The Professional Era-Movement Toward Reform • Reform ideas emerged in response to corruption and the politicized state of the police • Ideas of reform for police: • Profession committed to public service • Improvement through scientific techniques of crime detection • More of a social work role to reform society by preventing crime and keeping people out of the justice system • These ideas were tied to the rehabilitative ideal in corrections

14. New Developments and Calls for Reform (1 of 2) • Important developments: • Body of literature • Improvements in areas of testing and training • Formal schools were developed • International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) • August Vollmer: pioneer of police professionalism • 1905 to1932 • Police should function as social workers and do more than make arrests • Police should actively prevent crime

15. New Developments and Calls for Reform (2 of 2) • Other reformers continued to reject any political involvement by the police • Seeking autonomous agencies • Focused on becoming law enforcement agencies • Sole goal of controlling crime • Fredrick Taylor: emphasis on production and unity of control through a hierarchical pyramid • Aided in routinized and standardized police work • Enforcement of laws and arrest • Discretion was limited • Special units were created to specific problems

16. Crime Commissions and Early Police Studies (1 of 3) • Wickersham Commission 1931 • First national study of crime and criminal justice • Recommended: • Corrupting influence of politics be removed from policing • Police chief executives be selected on merit • Patrol officers be tested and meet physical standards • Police salaries and working conditions be decent • Policewomen be used in juvenile and female cases

17. Crime Commissions and Early Police Studies (2 of 3) • Important changes to policing: • Advent of the automobile and its accompanying radio • Expanded geographical beats • Telephones and two-way radios placed higher demands on police • Prohibition • Bloody wave of radical violence in American cities • Rise and defeat of police unionism and strikes

18. Crime Commissions and Early Police Studies (3 of 3) • 1930s O.W. Wilson: leading authority on police administration • Took guidance from J. Edgar Hoover and FBI • Police should be crime fighters • Raised eligibility and training standards of recruits • Reduction of social work in policing the policewomen’s movement was also reduced • Relationships between police and citizens were no longer necessary

19. Professional Crime Fighter: Emphasis on Efficiency and Control (1 of 2) • Police reform focusing on efficiency and control continued from the 1940s through the early 1960s • Administrators continued in controlling rank-and-file officers • Many problems of racial unrest and an unclear definition of the police role remained • Policing began to develop its own sense of professional autonomy • Policing as a career • Return of police unions

20. Professional Crime Fighter: Emphasis on Efficiency and Control (2 of 2) • Professional model demanded an impartial law enforcer • Related to citizens in professionally neutral and distant terms • Citizens were relatively passive in crime control • Limited to calling the police and serving as witnesses • Need for rapid response to calls for service (CFS) • Carrying and use of firearms • Case approach: officers were judged by the number of arrests or miles they drove • Crime rate was the primary indicator of police effectiveness

21. Reestablishment of Communication: Police-Community Relations • Louis Radelet founded the National Institute on Police and Community Relations (NIPCR) at Michigan State University (MSU) in 1955 • He was also MSU’s coordinator of the National Center on Police and Community Relations which conducted a national survey from 1965-1973 • Led to the creation of many programs • NIPCR was discontinued in 1969

22. Problems with the Professional Model (1 of 2) • Crime began to rise, and research suggest that conventional police methods were not effective. • 1960s Vietnam, civil rights • President’s Crime Commission • Fear rose • Many minority citizens did not perceive their treatment as equitable or adequate • The antiwar and civil rights movements challenged police

23. Problems with the Professional Model (2 of 2) • Some of the myths on which the reform era was founded • Police officers use little or no discretion • Police officer see their primary duty as law enforcement • Mangers had tried to professionalize policing, but line officers continued to have low status • The police lost a significant portion of their financial support • Police began to acquire competition: private security and community crime control movements

24. Changing Wisdom: More Resent Studies of Police Work (1 of 3) • “New Realism” research (1950s): • Informal handling of incidents were more common than formal procedures • Workload, public pressure, and interagency pressure greatly influenced how the police and CJ system operated • Arrest was used to achieve a whole range of objectives • A variety of informal methods outside the CJ system had been adopted by the police to fulfill their formal responsibilities • Individual officer exercised a great deal of discretion

25. Changing Wisdom: More Resent Studies of Police Work (2 of 3) • Police in the past had depended too much on criminal law to get their job done • Police were not autonomous • Accountable through political process, the community • Police need to deal with fear and enforce public order • 50% of an officer’s time was committed to CFS • 80% of those calls were noncriminal incidents

26. Changing Wisdom: More Resent Studies of Police Work (3 of 3) • 5 national studies of police practices during the riots and the Vietnam War led to new directions for police • Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment 1973 • Most serious crimes were unaffected by the standard police actions • Preventative patrol is costly, and produces minimal results in reduction crime • Rapid response to calls is less effective at catching criminals than educating the public • Police have little impact on preventing crime

27. Viewing “Sacred Cow” Methods with Caution • Police got too caught up measuring their success by the numbers of arrests and quickness of responses (the means), they often neglected the outcome of their work (the ends) • Police spent most of their time in patrol cars and responding to CFS calls • Knew little of the underlying causes of problems in their neighborhoods on their beats • Officers became frustrated responding to the same calls with no progress

28. Time for a New Approach • Police needed to change their daily activities, their management practices, and their view of their work • Police agencies needed to evaluate their effectiveness of their responses • Crime trend analysis and proper workload analysis • Police must reacquaint themselves with members of the community by involving citizens in the resolution of neighborhood problems

29. The Community Era: Team Policing, Foot Patrol, and Shattered Myths (1 of 2) • Team policing: restructure police departments, improve police-community relations, enhance police morale, and facilitate change • Decentralized neighborhood focus • Officers were to be generalists assigned to a particular neighborhood • Team policing failed • Poorly planned and hastily implemented

30. The Community Era: Team Policing, Foot Patrol, and Shattered Myths (1 of 2) • Foot patrol became popular again • Residents liked it and felt safe • Led to a significant reduction of perceived crime problems • Information could help police improve their ability to deal with crime • Citizens appreciated being asked about their crime priorities and often provided useful information • Community Patrol Officer Program (CPOP) New York City 1984

31. Early Beginnings of the Problem-Oriented Policing Model (1 of 2) • Problem-oriented policing (POP) requires new police strategies and a new organizational approach • Community collaboration for many police tasks • Equal emphasis of crime control and prevention • Police officers have a wide use of discretion • Less routinization and standardization • Middle management layers are reduced • Police enjoy the holistic approach and can problem solve successfully

32. Early Beginnings of the Problem-Oriented Policing Model (1 of 2) • Three elements of community policing: • Community Partnerships • Relationships and interactions with other governmental agencies, businesses, nonprofit groups, and individuals • Problem Solving • Scanning, Analysis, Response, Assessment • Organizational Transformation • Changes in leadership, human resources, field operations, and external relationships

33. Why the Emergence of Problem-Oriented Policing? • Narrowing of the police mission to crime fighting • “Means over ends” syndrome • “Us verses them” mentality • Increase in cultural diversity, downturn in the economy and increased violence • Changes in technology

34. Well Entrenched: Three Generations of Community Policing and Problem Solving • Innovation era (1979-1986) were small-scale test sites with narrow focus in larger cities • Diffusion era (1987-1994) concept and philosophy of community policing and problem solving spread and was adopted by many police agencies • Broader scale, evaluated the outcomes • Institutionalization era (1995-present) is the widespread implementation • Most local police departments include community policing components in their mission statements

35. Emerging Strategies for the Twenty-First Century • CompStat • Smart Policing • Intelligence-Led Policing • Predictive Policing

36. The Three Eras of Policing

37. Contributions of the Federal COPS Office: An Overview • Federal COPS Office began in 1994: • Invested more than $14 billion in hiring, training, and technology funding • Distributed more than 2 million publications • Funded more than 125,000 officers for more than 13,000 police agencies • Trained more than 700,000 officers on community policing and problem solving

38. Problem-Oriented Policing and Homeland Security: New Threats and New Measures • Police have several means to address domestic terrorism • Military support of law enforcement • Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 • Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was formed in 2002

39. Role of Problem-Oriented Policing • Terrorism is a local issue • Police, citizens, and government agencies must work together to ensure our collective safety • Homeland security and problem-oriented policing have much in common • Partnerships and technology are necessary

40. A Note on Coming Full Circle, Back to the Community… • Police are now attempting to change tradition and become more community oriented • Today’s policing issues and problems actually began centuries ago • The community era is thriving in today’s police world