Methods of Research & Stats

1. Methods of Research & Stats

2. The Scientific Attitude The scientific attitude is composed of: • curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).

3. Scientific Method Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. 7

4. Theory A Theory isan explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. Example Theory: low self-esteem contributes to depression.

5. Hypothesis A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. Example Hypothesis: People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

6. Research Observations Describe Behavior Example Research: Administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis. Predict circumstances Control Behavior

7. Research Process

8. Methods

9. Case Study • A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. • Intensive investigation of one or more participants. • Use of diaries, tests and interviews to conclude research. • Genie Advantages? Disadvantages?

10. Naturalistic Observation • Observe subject in natural setting. • 52 Psychology Students- 4 days- captured 30 seconds of students’ waking hours every 12.5 minutes. • 28% of time talking with another person • 9% working on a computer Advantages? Disadvantages?

11. Surveys • A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people • 1. How many days a month do you miss school? • 2. How many of those missed days are due to illness? • 3. How many times have you gone to the doctor in the last month?

12. Survey Wording Effect Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid) Only 27% of Americans approved of “government censorship” of media sex and violence, while 66% approved of “more restrictions on what is shown on TV “Aid the needy” vs.. “welfare”

13. Survey Random Sampling • If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). • If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.

14. Descriptive Methods Basically… Case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys help to describe behaviors.

15. So many numbers! What do they all mean?!?!? Stats

16. Stats • Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other • Correlation coefficient is a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) and thus how well either one predicts the other • Ex. Knowing how much ACT scores correlate with school success tells us how well the scores predict school success

17. Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient Indicates strength of relationship (-1.00 to 1.00) Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables. r = + 0.37

18. Stats • Scatter plots: graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of two variables. • The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. • The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation • Little scatter indicates high correlation

19. Stats • Positive correlation: two sets of scores tend to rise and fall together (0 to +1) • Negative correlation: two sets of scores relate inversely and as one goes up the other goes down (-1 to 0) • Weak correlation, indicating little relationship, has a coefficient near zero. • Ex. Exercise and weight correlate negatively • Height and weight correlate positively

20. Stats Positive or Negative? High or low correlation?

21. Stats Your Text Here Positive or Negative? High or low correlation?

22. Stats Positive or Negative? High or low correlation?

23. Stats Positive or Negative? High or low correlation?

24. Stats • Correlation and Causation • Correlations help us predict • Low self-esteem correlates with depression • But does this prove that low self-esteem leads to depression? • NO! CORRELATIONS AND STATISTICS DO NOT PROVE ANYTHING • Correlations show relationships between two variables but nothing more.

25. Illusory correlations • Illusory correlations are the perceptions of a relationship where none exists • When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are more likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief • When we notice random coincidences we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated

26. Random Events • Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. • Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order. • Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day. • An event that happens to but 1 in 1 billion people occurs about six times every day, 2000 times a year.

27. Experiments- Key Words Defined • Hypothesis- an educated guess • Variable- any factor that is capable of change • Dependent variable- depends of what takes place during the experiment. • Independent variable- experimental factor/ can vary independently of other factors. • Experimental group- the group to which an independent variable is applied • Control group- the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group, but independent variable not applied.

28. Stats • Experimentation • A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). • Example: • Independent Variable: Breast milk or formula • Dependent Variable: Intelligence score @ age 8 • Experiments allow the researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by • 1) manipulating the factors of interest • 2) holding constant other factors

29. Stats • Independent and Dependent Variables • The drug Viagra was approved for use after only 21 clinical trials • In one experiment 329 men with ED were assigned to either the experimental group (Viagra takers) or the control group (placebo takers) • It was a double blind procedure that, in the end, produced 69% of the experimental group attempts at intercourse were successful, compared to 22% for the control group • Viagra worked

30. Stats • Random Assignment • Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups • If a behavior changes when we vary an experimental factor, then we infer the factor is having an effect • Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect

31. Stats • Random assignment is essential to getting quality results and non-bias results • Members who are assigned to research groups are oftenblind (uninformed) about what treatment, if any, they are receiving • In a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the actual treatment • In such studies researchers can check a treatment’s actual effects apart from the participants’ belief in its healing powers

32. Placebo Effect • Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent • False medication, false information, sham surgery.

33. Comparison Below is a comparison of different research methods.

36. Ask and define the question. • Gather information and resources through observation. • Form a hypothesis. • Perform one or more experiments and collect and sort data. • Analyze the data. • Interpret the data and make conclusions that point to a hypothesis. • Formulate a "final" or "finished" hypothesis.