1 / 69

The Economics of Gender

The Economics of Gender. Gender vs Sex. Sex: perbedaan secara biologis Laki-laki vs perempuan Gender: Characteristics as attributed that are socially associated with being female and male Feminine Masculine. What is economics of gender ?.

karif
Download Presentation

The Economics of Gender

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. The Economics of Gender

  2. Gender vs Sex • Sex: perbedaan secara biologis • Laki-laki vs perempuan • Gender: Characteristics as attributed that are socially associated with being female and male • Feminine • Masculine

  3. What is economics of gender ? • Interaksi agen ekonomi dalam keluarga, perusahaan dan pasar, sebagai laki-laki dan perempuan berbeda. • Hal ini dipelajari dalam economics of gender

  4. Seringkali Keliru Contoh: • – Angka Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Menurut Gender seharusnya menurut sex (jenis kelamin) • – Upah Pekerja Industri Manufaktur Menurut Gender ? Padahal kita hanya menyajikan statistik laki‐laki dan perempuan.

  5. Kajian Gender yang Benar • Kajian mengapa Angka Partisipasi AngkatanKerja Perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari laki‐laki? • Jawab: karena budaya patriarki bahwa laki‐lakibekerja di luar rumah, perempuan di dapur dan mengurus anak

  6. What is Gender Economics ? • Menerangkan bagaimana perbedaan gender (gender differences) sbg pelaku ekonomi menghasilkan perbedaan keluaran ekonomi (economic outcomes) terhadap masing‐masing jenis kelamin • Ukurannya ?

  7. Ukuran yang Digunakan Ukurannya: – Pendapatan, penghasilan, tingkat kemiskinan, jumlah jam kerja dsb. – Dan ukuran lain yang dipakai para ekonom untukmenentukan kesejahteraan ekonomi laki‐laki danperempuan (alokasi waktu lk vs pr).

  8. Is Economcs Gender Blind ? • Is macroeconomic policy gender blind? • They persue aggregate goals, blind to differential impacts on all individuals • Gender • Sector • Location

  9. Isu Gender dalam Economi 1. Pelaku ekonomi di masyarakat dapat laki‐laki atau perempuan 2. Mereka berinteraksi dalam keluarga, perusahaan maupun pasar. 3. Dua hal ini harus dipelajari dalam ekonomi gender untuk dapat dikatakan valid

  10. Gender Blind • The omission of gender concerns: • Generates policy with inefficienct macro level outcomes • Give unpredicted micro level consequences for women, children and families. • So what ?

  11. Isu Gender • Kesetaraan Gender yaitu kesetaraan dalam akses, partisispasi, kontrol dan manfaat. • Sehingga: terjadi kesetaraan hak di dalam segala sendi kehidupan

  12. Di masyarakat kita selalu bertanya mengapa laki‐laki dan perempuan selalu berbeda dalam kegiatan ekonomi? Pdhl lk maupun pr adalah pelaku ekonomi • Mengapa pendapatan perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari laki‐laki?

  13. Mengapa banyak terjadi sex segregation dalam pekerjaan,dan apa akibatnya terhadap perbedaan pendapatan? • Apakah peningkatan jumlah perempuan dalam pasar kerja menyebabkan peningkatan tabungan rumah tangga, meningkatkan household autonomy, atau perceraian atau jumlah anak sedikit?

  14. Perspektif Ekonomi Gender • Pendekatan ekonomi yang menerangkan perbedaan‐perbedaan gender. • Prinsip ekonomi: • Pengambilan keputusan dalam kelangkaan sumber daya (Decision making under constraints ‐scarcity) • Bhw manusia itu selalu bertindak rasional, yi: • Konsisten: bertindak sama dlm situasi yg sama • Visioner: mempertimbangkan efek ke depan,jangka panjang dan dampak tak langsung dari tingkah laku mrk.

  15. Tetap Gunakan Prinsip Ekonomi • Scarcity, sumber daya terbatas vs keinginan tidak terbatas • Opportunity cost, biaya kesempatan yang hilang • Marginal benefit vs marginal cost • Marginal utility • Market : • konsep penawaran (supply) dan permintaan(demand) dalam pasar (termasuk pasar kerja)

  16. Gender Bias in the Economic Theory • Sen (1990), suggested perception of roles and relative value may influence allocation resources within the household. • Discrimination suggested that perception of both women and employers affect wage determination in the market (Bruce, 1989) • Blinkers occure! What is these blinkers?

  17. Blinkers and Problems in Economic Theory • Boundary Blinkers • Invalid assumption about the nature and importance of boundary between the household and market is boundary blinkers (gender blind) • Boundary blinkers, failure to correctly specified the “base populartion” for the measurement of economic activity.

  18. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • Consequences: • Movements of productive activities from household to market are intepreted as an increase in production because the basis for comparison is not the total universe of economic activity (only monitise) • Taking account this problem: • New household economics (NHE): time allocation

  19. Blinkers and Problems in Economic Theory • Clearly seen in: • National accounting system • Measurement of economic growth • Transfer from household production is invisible • Result of boundary blinkers: • Disinvestments in human resources, as efficient: transfer burden from public sector (out of monetise economy) • Burden falls to household where real but nonmonetise cst becomes convieniently invisible • This: false impression of net efficiency gain for both public sector and economy as a whole

  20. Blinkers and Problems in Economic Theory 2. Measurement Blinkers Is to take account accurate recognition of women’s contribution to economic preoduction due to under enumeration of their participation in the labor force. Simple Microec theory asume work or not decision is only about allocation of time between work or leisure

  21. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • Men and women have different activities, women also bear primarily responsibility for biological and social reproduction. • Men: devide time between mutually exclusive activities • Women: engage multiple an concurrent activities (biological reproduction and child care: continual and large demand demands of time)

  22. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • GDP, doent measure women and men’s contribution, the lower the FFP for women, the lower the contribution and no particular importance. • Women’s contribution are overlooked and underenumerated (contribution to wealth and welfare of their family and community)

  23. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory 3. The Specification Problem Problem arise from the failure of conventional economics to identify and take to account the opportunity cost of women’s time. Opprtunity cost of working includes: child care, domestic work, community activities. Nonmarket activities: treated as costless and ignored, it is unpriced resource.

  24. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • The key is to use opportunity cost of nonmonetise activities. • Women’s domestic activities, create human capital (health and education and quality of future generation) therefore contribute to economic production

  25. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory 4. The efficiency Problem Focus in microec: allocative efficiency, defined by pareto criterion. Pareto optimum: situation which not posibble to change allocation of resources without making someone worse off. At macro level: short term static allocative efficeincy is achieved when it is imposible to rearrange resources to increase total output

  26. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • Dynamic allocative efficiency: Long term resource allocation • Effect gender bias: • Acts as subsidy, unpaid household inputs are unpaid the true value • Women’s unpaid family labor subsidised economic preoduction generally • Unequal acsess on control of resources. • Inability to move between jobs, and to search higher returns, lack the incentives for HH to provide complementary physical capital or technology to raise women’s labor productivity

  27. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • Value of women’s reproductive role undervalued • Lower lifetime earnings, lead to no incentive to undertake human capital investment among women 5. Contextual Blinkers Is blinked to the economic significance of social and institutional context in which economic activity takes place. Neglect the role: families, households, social and cultural norms, conventions and institutions. (important for women)

  28. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • Family and household considered as moral economy: individual decision to max utility • NHE, individuals operate using shadow price • Values, attitudes, social conventions, behavioral norms and cultural mores are overlooked • Neoclassical economic theory assume: agents behave in fundamentally similar ways. Do they? They differ by norm, cultural and society values

  29. Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory • This blinker: made owmen to be ignored by social and institutions. • Contextual blinkers: blind fact that social conventions are another source of allocative inefficiency, restricting free movement of female resources to their most productive use. • By increasing social and psychological cost and reducing the benefit of market work for women.

  30. Gender Differentiated Impact of Macroeconomic Policy • Affect household through income, prices of goods consumed, access to public goods amd household participation in production and work. • SR: effects depend on role in household • LR: effects human capital formation, will change incentives or capacity to undertake longrun investments

  31. Konsep dasar perbedaan laki‐laki danperempuan dlm ekonomi • Memakai ukuran‐ukuran tentang pendapatan, penghasilan, partisipasi angkatankerja, tingkat kemiskinan, pembagian wakturumah vs pasar kerja dll • Kajian tentang tren perubahan antar waktu memberikan ilustrasi pemberdayaan peremp. • Dan mencari latar belakang terjadinya mengapa terjadi perubahan: mis. perubahan setting organisasi kemasyarakatan yg menyebabkan terjadinya perbedaan gender dlm semua aspek ekonomi

  32. Berapa Banyak Laki-laki dan Perempuan Bekerja • Diukur dengan Angka Partisipasi AngkatanKerja (Labor Force Participation Rate). • Bekerja = melakukan kegiatan untuk upah, gaji atau keuntungan (uang atau non‐uang) • Menganggur= tidak bekerja tetapi sedang mencari pekerjaan

  33. Trend TPAK • Data tren TPAK memperlihatkan perubahan setting dan pemberdayaan perempuan. • TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam, tetapi tetap lebih rendah dibanding TPAK laki‐laki • TPAK laki‐laki relatif stabil, tetapi tetap tinggi • Mengapa TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam? (kini lebih banyak perempuan masuk pasar kerja, ini pemberdayaan perempuan atau kemiskinan?

  34. Pertanyaan perbedaan gender(data USA, 1950‐1990) • Mengapa TPAK perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari pada laki‐laki? • Mengapa peningkatan TPAK Perempuan sangat tajam? Tetapi lebih rendah dari TPAK laki‐laki? • TPAK laki‐laki stabil tetap tinggi • Mengapa tingkat pengangguran perempuan selalu lebih tinggi dari laki‐laki?

  35. Mengapa terjadi peningkatan TPAK perempuan kawin? • Terutama TPAK perempuan kawin yang mempunyai anak balita meningkat tajam? • Perempuan lebih banyak bekerja sebagai clerical work dan sektor jasa • Laki‐laki lebih banyak bekerja di menjadi manager dan professional • Laki‐laki bekerja di pertambangan, konstruksi, transport dan utilities (listrik, telpon dll).

  36. Keikutsertaan dalam Serikat Kerja • Keikut sertaan perempuan pekerja dlm serikat pekerja lebih rendah dr laki‐laki dan stabil, tidak berubah • Kasus perempuan yg ditangani serikat pekerja juga rendah (peremp 15% laki 20%) • Tetapi ada tendensi keanggotaan perempuan dlm SP meningkat dari 18% thn 1950 ke 38%tahun 1990 (jumlh perempuan/jumlh SP). • Apakah kita punya data tentang ini?

  37. Gender Gap Penghasilan • Diukur dari rasio penghasilan pr thd lk • Ada tendensi rasio meningkat, artinya ada peningkatan penghasilan perempuan • Peningkatan kualitas kerja pr vs lk? • Penurunan diskriminsasi thd perempuan di pasar kerja • Shift struktur pekerjaan ke arah modern sector –manufacture, finance, foreign trade • Convergence of occupational distribution of men and women? (pekerjaan bisa dilakukan leh pr maupun lk.)

  38. Bagaimana Kesejahteraan Perempuan • Penghasilan Pr selalu lebihrendah dari LK • Akses PR terhadap sumber daya keuangan lebih rendah dr LK, tdk punya kontrol, tdk menikmati manfaat, tdk mendapat hak, ketimpangan gender, tdk ada kesetaraan • Lk dgn pendapatan tinggi cenderung menikah dgn Pr pendapatan lebih rendah. Msh berlaku? • Dilihat dlm keluarga: gabungan pendapatan. Less variation of income at family level

  39. Household as an Economic Unit

  40. Kompisisi Rumah Tangga (livingarrangement) • Difinisi rumah tangga (BPS) • Komposisi: jumlah dan siapa anggota RT • Keluarga batih (Ortu + anak) • Keuarga luas (Ortu+anak+orang lain) • Lain2: three generations under one roof • Bagaimana pembagian kerjanya? • Siapa yang lebih berkuasa dlm pengambilan keputusan ? Kepala RT, KRT bersama isteri?, Isteri saja?

  41. Keuntungan tinggal bersama vssendiri 1. Economies of production – belanja bersama,masak bersama dll (cost sharing) 2. Internalisasi dr externalisasi 3. Meringankan biaya transaksi 4. Meringankan variasi utilitas karena resource pooling

  42. Power distribution in household • Money (yg bawa uang ke rumah lebih powerful) • Patriarchy (helping husband maintaining harmony) • Children • Re‐negotiation of power within a household(kalau suami isteri sama sama bekerja?)

  43. Money as source of power • Partner yg membawa penghasilan lebih besar ke rumah, punya power utk ambil keputusan • Tentang hal‐hal penting: beli rumah, mobil, perlengkapan rumah, siapa yang tentukan suami? • Isteri, pengambil keputusan seputar anak, dapur,mengunjungi keluarga • Siapa menentukan isteri untuk ber KB? Dan jumlah anak yg diinginkan?

  44. Budaya patriarki dan pembagian kerja • Idealnya pembagian kerja yg rasional adalah seimbang antara lk dan pr • Tapi budaya patriarki cenderung mengunggulkan lk sebagai bread‐winner, diskriminasi perempuan di pasar kerja, menurunkan potensi perempuan untuk memperoleh pendapatan,seumur hidup tergantung suami, akses, kontrol dan manfaat terbatas, tidak ada kesetaraan, gender gap.

  45. Double burden perempuan bekerja • Meskipun isteri masuk pasar kerja tetapi tetapmengerjakan pekerjaan rumah tangga,mengasuh anak, masak, nyuci dll. • Suami? Mana egalitarianisme? • Isteri bekerja : market and non market work • Isteri melepaskan hak leisure time • Leisure time = non market good?, maka isteri mendapat share lebih kecil dlm HH total production

  46. Gender and demographic change

  47. Gender system: socially constructed expectations for male and female behaviour that are found in the society • Division of labor and responsibility (granted different rights and obligation) • Side effect: inequality power between sexes, autonomy, and well being—disdavantage of females

  48. Demographic change: change over time in a population • Fertility • Mortality • Migration (not a focus in researches) • What specific variabel must be altered to influence fertility and mortality

  49. Fertility • Bongaarts proximate detrminant: • Age of women becoming sexually active • Prevalence, duration and intersity of breastfeeding • Contraceptive use • Use of abortion

  50. Mortality • Mosly and Chen: 5 major proximate determianat s of infant and child mortality: • Maternal factors (mothers age, number of previous births, interval • Environmental contamination • Nutrient deficiency • Injury • Personal illness control

More Related