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中世社会成立期の農業・開発と灌漑 Agriculture in Early Medieval Times— Land Reclamation and Irrigation

中世社会成立期の農業・開発と灌漑 Agriculture in Early Medieval Times— Land Reclamation and Irrigation. 帝京大学　文学部 　木　村　茂　光. INTRODUCTION はじめに. From the late 1970s – A Focus on Paddy Fields (Amino 1980) The beginnings of a critical view of history

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中世社会成立期の農業・開発と灌漑 Agriculture in Early Medieval Times— Land Reclamation and Irrigation

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  1. 中世社会成立期の農業・開発と灌漑Agriculture in Early Medieval Times—Land Reclamation and Irrigation 帝京大学　文学部 　木　村　茂　光

  2. INTRODUCTION はじめに From the late 1970s – A Focus on Paddy Fields (Amino 1980) The beginnings of a critical view of history Advances in research on cultivated land /farming other than paddy fields 1. Research on the history of dry field cultivation Research on the nature of farmland and the production capacity characteristics of dry field cultivation (Kimura 1977, 1992) Research on the archaeology of dry fields and cereal cultivation (Japanese Archaeologists Association 2000) １９７０年代後半以降、「水田中心」史観批判の展開（網野1980） →水田以外の耕地・農業に関する研究の進展 ①畠作史の研究 　畠地の性格と畠作の生産力的特徴に関する研究（木村1977、1992） 考古学における畠作・雑穀に関する研究（日本考古学協会2000）

  3. 2. Research on the history of mountain villages A critique of the “Plains=Rice farming/ Mountains=Non-rice farming” binary (Yoneie 2002) 3. Research on “agriculture” Research on the various, multiple “agricultures” included in paddy fields/dry field lands (National Museum of Japanese History 2008) A reevaluation of agricultural production and techniques at the core of paddy field rice farming Including a reevaluation of paddy field irrigation ②山村史の研究 　　「平野部＝稲作／山間部＝非稲作」という二項対立的理解に対する批判（米家2002） ③「生業」に関する研究 水田・畠地を含めた多様な、複合的な「生業」に関する研究（国立歴史民俗博物館2008） 水田・稲作中心の農業生産・技術の見直し →水田・稲作に随伴する灌漑などに関する見直しも

  4. 3. Research on “agriculture” Research on the various, multiple “agricultures” included in paddy fields/dry field lands (National Museum of Japanese History 2008) A reevaluation of agricultural production and techniques at the core of paddy field rice farming Including a reevaluation of irrigation techniques for paddy and dry fields ③「生業」に関する研究 水田・畠地を含めた多様な、複合的な「生業」に関する研究（国立歴史民俗博物館2008） 水田・稲作中心の農業生産・技術の見直し →水田・稲作に随伴する灌漑などに関する見直しも

  5. １，古代・中世の畠作の特徴Classical-medieval dry field cultivation Stability of dry fields Research on “half-fallow land” by Toda Yoshimi (1959) Eizanji land register distinguishes stable and unstable arable Stable land mostly dry fields ①畠地の安定的性格 　　戸田芳実の「片あらし」に関する研究（戸田1959） 　　　栄山寺＜えいざんじ＞領に関する土地台帳から安定耕地と不安定耕地の析出 →その安定耕地の大部分に「白」の注記、安定耕地は畠であった

  6. Evidence Late Heian estate land survey ledgers list “fields” and “summer fields”; and “rent” and “summer rent.” --> Rents collected twice a year from dry fields, indicating double-cropping See Kamakura bakufu laws, supplement, clause 45 (Document 1) ②畠地二毛作の実証 　　　平安時代後期の荘園の検注帳に、「畠」と「夏畠」の記載 　　　　　同様に、「地子」と「夏地子」の記載 →畠地からの２度の収取の存在＝畠地二毛作の存在 （「鎌倉幕府法」追加法45条、　【史料１】) 畠地二毛作Double-cropping of dry fields

  7. Document lists various types of land, including Paddy & dry fields Dry fields & paddy In lowlands, elevated fields Mountain fields Fields not cultivated every year Stable fields Evidence for various forms of dry field usage ③多様な地種名の存在 「田畠」＜たばた＞・「畠田＜はただ＞」・「島畠」・「山畠」・「片畠」・「吉畠」. . . →畠地の多様な利用形態の存在 鎌倉幕府法　追加法45条、史料１Kamakura bakufu laws, suppl. #45 (Doc. 1)

  8. 代の畠作　Conversion to Dry Fields Document 2: Reevaluation of the “Cereal Cultivation Incentive Plan” (Eight documents, 715-840) Document 3: Council of State order, 840/5/2 : Converted fields encouraged Millet, sorghum, Japanese barnyard millet, barley, soy beans, red beans, sesame End of document: “You must not convert rice paddy to dry fields.” ④古代の畠作＝「雑穀栽培奨励策」の再評価（715年～840年の間に８通）【史料２】 840年５月２日　太政官符　　　　　　　　　　　　　【史料３】 「陸田」＜りくでん＞の奨励 ＝「黍＜きび＞・稷＜たかきび＞・稗＜ひえ＞・麦・大小豆及　び胡麻」など雑穀栽培の奨励 末尾の但書き：「ただこれによって水田を務めず、変えて陸田に為すを得ざれ」

  9. →水田を陸田＝畠地に変える事態の進行＝それを積極的に進める百姓たちの存在→水田を陸田＝畠地に変える事態の進行＝それを積極的に進める百姓たちの存在 • Landholding cultivators (hyakushô) actively advanced the transformation of paddy fields to converted fields (dry fields). • これまで＝救荒対策としての雑穀栽培→積極的な畠作の進展（木村1988） • Cereals were once cultivated for famine relief; now active dry field cultivation develops (Kimura 1988).

  10. ２，百姓の経営と畠作 Management by Cultivators and Dry Field Cultivation 畠地・畠作は百姓経営の拠点 Cultivators focused their management efforts on dry fields and their cultivation

  11. Report on Iga estate, early 12th C: “Since these are not dry fields under the provincial governor’s control, they are where woodsmen live.” “The provincial governor is not aware of [does not tax] dry fields. This is a provincial custom.” ①１２世紀前半の伊賀国黒田荘に関する勘文 　　・然して則ち国司左右の畠に非らざるを以て、杣工の住所為るなり。 　　・畠に至りては国司の知るところに非ず。是また国例なり。 　　・畠地子は国司の知るところに非ず。 ２，平安遺文　(Heian Ibun) 2147 (Doc. 4)

  12. Dry field lands are outside the control of provincial governors = Field rents are not even levied The “residence” of woodsmen cutters = their base of operations →畠地は国司の支配の対象外＝畠地子も賦課されない →杣工＜そまく＞の「住所」＝経営の拠点　 平安遺文　(Heian Ibun) 2147 (Doc. 4)

  13. 百姓らの主張, 1197 (史料５）Cultivators’ Complaint（Doc.５） Complaint by cultivators of Koinumaru hamlet, Harima province, end of 12th C (Kamakura ibun 912) “If our dry fields are confiscated, where shall we live and how shall we pay our taxes?” “If you seize our pond, what water will we use to cultivate our paddy fields?” “If you confiscate our homes and harass those who live there, who will cultivate the hamlet’s fields, who will see that the annual rice levies are paid?” ②１２世紀末の播磨国小犬丸保の百姓らの主張 『鎌倉遺文』912号 ・「およそ畠地を点ぜられれば、土民何処に居住し、課役を勤仕せん」 ・「池を押領されれば、何水を以て作田を養わしめん」 ・「在家を点定し、住人を妨げられれば、誰人をもって保田を耕作し、所当官物を済ませしめべけんや」

  14. →畠地＝居住地＝在家＝保田の経営と所当官物納入のための拠点→畠地＝居住地＝在家＝保田の経営と所当官物納入のための拠点 • This document indicates that dry fields were the location of residences and the base for managing hamlet fields and producing the annual rice tax payment.

  15. 若狭国太良荘の百姓らの主張Complaint of Tara estate cultivators • ③１４世紀中葉、若狭国太良荘の百姓らの主張 • 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（『東寺百合文書』ハ13-20号） • Mid-14th C complaint by cultivators of Tara estate in Wakasa province (Tôji hyakugô monjo, ハ13-20) • 　　・「作麦を以て農業を遂げるの条、諸国皆以て例なり」 • There are examples from all provinces of engaging in farming through the cultivation of wheat. • →作麦＝畠作が農業経営を遂行するための拠点 • → Growing wheat, i.e. dry field cultivation, is the base of agricultural management.

  16. From mid-11th C: development of large-scale land reclamation by proprietors But they did not reclaim mountain forests & fields directly. １１世紀中期以降、領主的大規模開発の進展 　　　しかし、山林原野などを直接開発するものではない ３，領主的開発の特徴Land Reclamation by Proprietors

  17. Izumi Provincial Directive (copy), land reclamation order, beginning of 11th C (Heian ibun 462): Orders to all great and small tato (field managers): in addition to “old cultivated fields,” “fallow fields” shall be “opened.” The aim was to reopen fallow fields in the area while maintaining currently cultivated fields ①１１世紀初頭の「和泉国符案」の開発命令（『平安遺文』462号） ・普く大小の田堵に仰せて「古作」のほか「荒田」を「発作」せしむべき事 →「古作」＝現作を維持しつつその周辺の「荒田」を再開発することに狙いがあった 「和泉国符案」Izumi Provincial Directive

  18. 2. Land reclamation in Hisatomi hamlet from mid-11th C, according to Hata no Takatomi (Heian ibun 1059, 1113--Doc.6) On our ancestral land in Hisatomi hamlet, there are “mulberry fields along with perennial nettles.” Hisatomi: “These fields are our ancestral holdings and residence.” ②１１世紀中頃の秦為辰による播磨久富保の開発（『平安遺文』1059、1113号、【史料6】） 　　　・先祖相伝の久富保には「畠桑并に年苧等」が存在 　　　・久富保を「件の畠、先祖相伝の領地屋敷たるなり」と表現 播磨久富保の開発Reclamation of Hisatomi hamlet, Harima

  19. “Several years later about 50 chô were reclaimed, but prior to that we know of 5 chô 2 tan of cropland.” “Though this is a historic spot, the “Arai irrigation ditch” that was abandoned as a dangerous place was restored & land was opened." -->The residence was surrounded by dry fields. Using currently cultivated fields as a base, the old irrigation ditch was restored and fallow fields were re-opened. ・数年後５０町余が開発されているが、その前提には「当作５町２段」が存在 　　　・旧跡有ると雖も難所として罷り立っていた「荒井溝」を復旧して開発 →屋敷＝畠地の存在、「当作」（＝現作）を開発の拠点に、旧跡のある荒井溝を復旧して「荒田」を開発＝再開発

  20. Mid 11th C: Fujiwara Muneyori of Aki province cedes land rights to his oldest son Munetoshi (Heian ibun 854) The rights were to Mita village and lands within Beppu Shigeyuki. Mita is noted as “Munetoshi’s jûgô” -->“Jûgô” means the village where his residence is located ③１１世紀中頃、安芸国藤原守頼が嫡男守遠に所領を譲与 （『平安遺文』854号） 　　・所領＝三田郷并に別符重行のうち、三田郷を「守遠の住郷」と表記　 →「住郷」＜じゅうごう＞＝本宅（屋敷）のある郷

  21. End of the 11th C: a senior prelate at Gangôji orders Hasetsukabe no Tamenobu to reclaim “paddy and fallow fields (tashiro arano)” in Iga province, Yanase village (Heian ibun 1002) “This place was made up of about 17 chô of “existing cultivated fields” and “uncountable fallow lands.” ->Land reclamation began with a core of already cultivated fields “Tashiro” = land designated for reclamation ④１１世紀後期、元興寺大僧都が丈部為延に伊賀国簗瀬郷内の「田代荒野」の開発を命じる （『平安遺文』1002号） 　　・この所は、「見作田」１７町余と「無数荒野」から成り立っていた。 →開発の前提に現作田の存在　　 　　　「田代」＜たしろ＞は開発予定地

  22. 史料7 Doc. 7 再開発 Re-opening Land 5. End of 12th C: Nakahara Yorisada cedes his ancestral estate Shigetomo village to “Lord Suke Jirô” (Heian ibun 3570, Doc. 7) • “This whole place is ruined wild land.” • “This village is near the residence. Quickly solicit vagabonds . . . and encourage them to farm!” -->Farming encouraged on “damaged or wild land” near a residence: these lands were to be opened again ⑤１２世紀末中原頼貞が重代相伝の重友村を「介次郎殿」に譲渡 『平安遺文』3570号、【史料7】 　・「件の所はみな損亡仕り荒廃の地」であった。 　・「件の村は御屋敷の近辺なり。早く浪人を招き寄せ……勧農あるべきなり」 →「屋敷」の近辺で「損亡・荒廃」の地を勧農＝再開発

  23. * Residences are the bases for land reclamation * Land reclamation began with a core of currently cultivated paddy and dry fields The object of reclamation: fallow fields, cultivated fields, ruined lands: these lands were re-opened Note the restoration of a natural irrigation ditch in Hisatomi hamlet ＊屋敷が開発の拠点 　　＊開発の前提には現作の田・畠が存在 　　＊開発の対象は「荒田」、「田代」、損亡した荒廃地＝再開発 久富保－旧跡のある荒井溝の修復 ⑥まとめ Summary

  24. ４，池と井－開発の条件（大山Ôyama1961）Ponds and Canals: Required for Reclamation PONDS AND CANALS Proprietors re-opened paddy surrounding their residence Cultivators opened dry fields surrounding their residence -->Roughly true but to see this as a binary is a mistake Cultivators also had a strong drive to reclaim paddy ①池と井 　　領主層＝屋敷を拠点とした水田の再開発 　　農民層＝在家を拠点とした畠地の開発 →大まかな特徴としては正しいが、対立的に捉えるのは間違い 　　農民層も水田の開発に強い意志をもっていた。

  25. “In the old days it was difficult to obtain a drop of water in this hamlet. Local people devised a plan and put it to work: they dug a pond, irrigated their fields, and paid their taxes.” One possibility: Paddy field reclamation by cultivators and at the village level used ponds And paddy field reclamation by proprietors used irrigation canals 前述の小犬丸保の例 　　　・「当保一滴の水、尚しく以て得難き。ここによって往古土民ら、計略を廻らし功力を尽くして、さらに池を構築して作田に漑ぎ入れ、年貢を備進す」 ・・・これらから 　　　百姓らや村落レベルの水田開発－池 　　　領主層の水田開発－井（用水）という対比の可能性 例：小犬丸保　Example: Koinumaru hamlet

  26. 上記の例以外の典型的な例としてOther Typical Examples Land reclamation at Hine estate, Izumi: 1st stage: pond cluster at foot of northern mountains 2nd stage: irrigation canal drawing from Kashiigawa Land reclamation at Kasada section, Kaseda estate, Kii: 1st stage: pond cluster at the base of the mountain 2nd stage: Mongaku’s canal Higashi village, a Kokawadera holding, Kii: Irrigation canals dating from Kamakura to North-South periods 上記の例以外の典型的な例として 　・和泉国日根荘の開発　 　　第１段階：北側の山麓に点在した池群 　　第２段階：樫井川から引いた湯（井）川　　 　・紀伊国　田＜かせだ＞荘の笠田地区の開発 　　第１段階：山裾の池群 　　第２段階：文覚井の開削 　・紀伊国粉河寺領東村 　　鎌倉時代後期～南北朝期　村による灌漑池の築造

  27. ②「井」＝領主の論理　(史料７)Canals: Proprietors’ Choice (Doc. 8) Late 12th C: Kôyasan & provincial governor’s office debate repair of Aya canal, Naka district, Kii province (Heian ibun 3153, Doc. 8) Kôyasan: “When an opening to an irrigation canal was made upstream, more than 2 tan of our estate’s dry fields were destroyed.” Province: “Several 100 chô of paddy will be lost to protect a small number of dry fields.” Kôyasan: “We complain of unprecedented losses!” １２世紀後半、紀伊国那賀郡綾井改修をめぐる高野山と国衙の言い分 『平安遺文』3153号、史料７） 　　　高野山：井口を上流に新たに築造したために、荘領の畠地２段余がつぶされた。 　　　国衙：少量の畠地を守ることによって、数百町の田地が失われることの方が問題だ。高野山が「訴え申す旨、全く前後を顧みず、公損未曽有の事なり」。

  28. Example: Onnabori [canal] at the foot of Akagi Mt., Kôzuke province, beginning of 12th C When the canal was dug, many dry fields were buried below an embankment & destroyed -->Proprietors dug canals to support opening of paddy fields, in opposition to the maintenance of dry fields １２世紀初頭の上野国赤城山麓の女堀の事例 　　　発掘の結果、女堀を開削するために畠地が大量に破壊され、土手の下に埋め込まれていた。 →領主：「井」の開削－水田開発の論理←畠地維持の論理 女堀, 上野国 Onnabori, Kôzuke province

  29. ５，大部荘の開発Land Reclamation on Ôbe Estate Sources: Hashimoto 1995, Kawabata 1996, Ono City 1997, 2001 1. Details of land reclamation process unclear On the lower terrace, fields were cultivated from the Ritsuryô age (7th-8th Cs) Cultivation was centered on Kumano shrine, and on drawing water from Ôike pond, Shimonoike pond and the Tôjô river (橋本1995、川端1996、小野市1997、2001） ①開発の過程－詳細は不明 　　下位段丘面は律令時代以来耕地化は進展 　　中心－熊野神社＋大池・下ノ池＋東条川からの引水も

  30. Land reclamation, beginning of the Kamakura period: Water was drawn from the upper terrace where Jôdoji was located Object: to irrigate the middle terrace, using North and South Ponds Goal: to make a connection with the lower terrace But documents have very few entries on dry fields & their cultivation Details of pond construction techniques? 鎌倉初期の開発　　　　　 　 　拠点－高位段丘面－浄土寺 　 　対象－中位段丘面←北池・南池 　 　目標－下位段丘面との接続 問題点－畠地・畠作の記載が非常に少ない 池の築造技術が左右？ 大部荘の開発Land Reclamation on Ôbe Estate

  31. ②耕地状況－14世紀前半Conditions of Arable, Early 14th C • （注）除田などは記載していない

  32. 損田・川成率（概数）Percentage of damaged & flooded fields • 建武４年　古作田６４％常作田　７０％ • 1337 old fields 64% current fields 70% • 暦応３年　　　　　６９％　　　　　　６７％吉富　６０％ • 1340 69% 67% stable fields 60% • 　・年損（旱損）の多さ－池水の不足 • Yearly losses to drought: pond water insufficient • 　　・河成の多さ－河川からの引水の不安定性 • Amount of flooding indicates instability of drawing water from rivers

  33. From a record of losses to weather etc., #443, 1364: Fee for water from main canal, 16.5 koku; from village ponds & canals, 6.2 koku Tax rice from same source: Old cultivated fields: 4.5 to/tan Regularcultivated fields: 2.5 to/tan --> 4 chô7 tan + Rivals the military steward’s holdings near his residence, of 4 chô 2 tan 30 shiro (same source) 貞治３年の内検帳（４４３号） １６石５斗　本井料６石２斗村々池井溝井料 ←同内検帳の「得田」の分米　 古作田－段別４斗５升 　　　常作田－段別２斗５升　で換算すると 　　　　４町７段余　　 －－同内検帳の「地頭門田４町２段３０代」に匹敵 ③井料田の多さAmounts paid for irrigation water

  34. 参考文献 • 網野善彦　1980『日本中世の民衆像』（岩波書店） • 大山喬平　1961 「中世における灌漑と開発の労働編成」（『日本中世農村史の研究』岩波　　　　　　　　書店、1978年） • 小野市　　　1997『小野市史』第４巻 • 2001 『小野市史』第１巻 • 川端　新　　1996 『播磨国大部荘の開発と水利』（京都大学博物館『荘園を読む・　 • 　　　　　　　　　　　　歩く』思文閣出版） • 木村茂光　1977 「中世成立期における畠作の性格と領有関係」（『日本古代・中　 • 　　　　　　　　　　　世畠作史の研究』（校倉書房、1992年） • 1988　「日本古代の「陸田」と畠作」（同　上） • 1992 『日本古代・中世畠作史の研究』（校倉書房） • 国立歴史民俗博物館編 2008『生業から見る日本史』（吉川弘文館） • 戸田芳実　1959　「中世初期農業の一特質」（『日本領主制成立史の研究』岩波書　　 • 　　　　　　　　　　　店、1967年） • 日本考古学協会　2000『はたけの考古学』（日本考古学協会２０００年度鹿児島　　 • 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　大会資料集　第１集）　 • 橋本道範　1995 「播磨大部荘」（石井進編『中世のムラ』東京大学出版会） • 米家泰作　2002『中・近世山村の景観と構造』（校倉書房）

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