Presented by: Dr. James M. Patton, Professor The College of William and Mary jmpatt@wm To

1. Where are the African American Male Learners?--Disproportionality And Effective Culturally Responsive Research, Policies and Practices to Reduce this Scourge Presented by: Dr. James M. Patton, Professor The College of William and Mary jmpatt@wm.edu To MAEC Conference Washington, D. C. March 24, 2006

2. Overview • Introductions and Flow • Historical Contexts • What We Know about Disproportionality – Conceptual Issues, Evidence and Data • What is the Risk of Being Identified….

3. Overview (cont.) • Some Additional Factors that Shape Disproportionality • The Nexus of Culture, Class and Disproportionality • Culturally Responsive Research, Policies and Practices Needed: A Call For New Research and Pedagogical Solutions • Other Culturally Responsive Solutions • The Trio of Ethical Challenges • Change, Plato and the Cave Allegory

4. Historical Contexts

5. Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Resolution on Disproportionate Representation(April,1997) “Whereas, the Disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education has been consistently confirmed through numerous scholarly studies since the 1970’s and recognized in U.S. Federal and Canadian provincial laws.”

6. Council for Exceptional Children Resolution on Disproportionate Representation (1997) Resolved that the: • United States Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights (OCR) continues to monitor disproportionate representation and conform their policies and procedures to recommendations of the task forces.

7. Donovan, M. S., & Cross, C. T. (Eds.). (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. National Research Council Of the National Academy of Science (NAS) Recommendations on Special Education.

8. NAS 2002 • …“Twenty years later, disproportionality in special education persists.” (Donovan & Cross, 2002)

9. National Research Council Report (2002) Recommendations for States: • “Course work and practicum experience to prepare teachers to deliver culturally responsive instruction. More specifically, teachers should be more familiar with the beliefs, values, cultural practices, discourse styles, and other features of student’s lives…(p.373).”

10. National Research Council Report(2002) Cont. • In response to Disproportionality, the NRC calls for extensive changes in training and roles of teachers, administrators, and related service personnel in order to makeeducation professionals responsive to a diverse population. In particular, this body suggests that “recognizing and working with implicit and explicit racial stereotypes should be incorporated in training programs” (p. 317).

11. What Is The Status of Such Training? • Although 41 states require some form of diversity training for teacher licensure , specific requirements, definitions, and standards vary significantly and are routinely not enforced (Ewing,2003).

12. The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education • The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) found that only 56% of the institutions surveyed addressed cultural diversity adequately in their pre-service professional education curricula (Goodwin, 1997).

13. Disproportionality Well then what does that elephant in the room look like?

14. Disproportionality AS:

15. What is Disproportionality? • “Disproportionality is the over or underrepresentation in special and gifted education of a given population group often defined by racial and ethnic backgrounds, but also defined by socioeconomic status, national origin, English proficiency, gender, and sexual orientation in a specific population category.” (EMSTAC: www.emstac.org,’04)

16. What is Disproportionality? • Disproportionate representation is defined as “the extent to which membership in a given group affects the probability of being placed in a specific special education disability category.” (Oswald, et. Al. 1999)

17. So What? Why isDisproportionality a Problem? • If we find bias or inappropriate practice at any phase of the referral and placement process that leads to disproportionate representation, then we must treat disproportionality as a problem (Heller, Holtzman, & Messick, 1982).

18. So What? Cont. • When a disability label stigmatizes a student as inferior, it results in lowered expectations, potentially separates the student from peers, and leads to poor educational and life outcomes; inappropriate placement is of great concern (Patton, 1998).

19. What Else do We Know?Research, Evidence, and Data Show That: • Disproportionality is Janus-like in nature, form, and structure (USDOE, 1998). • The problem is pervasive and has gotten better for some, but not for others – especially African American males (Artiles, A., and Trent, S., 1998). • African American males are overrepresented in all high incidence categories (MR+ED+LD) of special education and especially overrepresented in all suspension and expulsion categories. (NCCREST, 2004)

20. What Else do We Know?Research, Evidence, and Data Show That: • In Elementary Schools, males, especially African American males, are twice as likely to be diagnosed with learning disabilities as females and twice as likely to be placed in special education classes. • 40% of males are being raised without their biological dad. • More than half of African American males who start high school do not finish. (Tyre, P., The Trouble with Boys, Newsweek, January, 30. 2006)

21. What Else do We Know?Research, Evidence, and Data Show That: • The problem is with false positive youngsters in special education and false negative students in gifted education(Patton, J., 1998). • The problem is national and most apparent in the South; in cities with large concentrations of African American; and in some local school districts where Blacks are conspicuous (Patton, J., 1998).

22. What Do We Know About Disproportionality? • Problems often lie primarily in special education categories that tend to rely on subjective judgments. (Patton, 1998) • As a result, African American students, especially males, and certain other minority students tend to be overrepresented in classrooms for students with mild mental disabilities and emotional and behavioral disabilities (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999). • Although African Americans represent 16% of elementary and secondary enrollments, they constitute 21% of total enrollments in special education (USDOE, 1998).

23. Research, Evidenceand Data show that: • African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans are generally “deeper” into special education than comparable non-minorities. (Artiles, A. and Trent, S., 1998) • Disproportionality is a problem because it creates stigmata; provides limiting inappropriate services, reinforces school segregation; and correlates with negative outcomes such as premature school leaving at all levels, school expulsions at all levels, school suspensions at all levels, and the like. (Artiles, A., and Trent, S., 1998) • Almost 75% of diagnoses of mild mental retardation are linked to various socioeconomic-related environmental contingencies. Poor children are more likely than wealthier children to receive special Education. (U.S. Department of Education, 1998)

24. Research, Evidenceand Data show that: • Poor African American children are 2.3 times more likely to be identified by their teacher as having mental retardation. (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999) • Poverty and other socioeconomic factors affect the incidence of disability among ethnic groups and across all disabilities. Even with socioeconomic factors considered, race and ethnicity remain significant factors in placing children in special education. (Paper presented at Harvard University Civil Rights Project Conference on Minority Issues in Special Education, 2000) www.law.harvard.edu/civilrights

25. What Do We Know • African Americans, especially males, who engage in certain Behaviors that Represent Artifacts of their Culture—such as Language (Ebonics), Movement Patterns (verve), and certain “Ethnic” appearance– have been found to be Over-represented in False Positive Referrals for Special Education Placement (Neal, L., McCray, A. & Webb-Johnson, G. 2001).

26. Research, Evidenceand Data show that: OVERREPRESENTATION RESULTS IN LEARNERS BECOMING DISTANCED INNAPPROPRIATELY FROM THE GENERAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM, WHICH, IN TURN, LIMITS THEIR OPPORTUNITIES TO BE EXPOSED TO THIS CURRICULUM AND ACCOMPANYING SYSTEMS, STRUCTURES, PERSONNEL, AND OTHER RESOURCES. ACCORDINGLY, RESULTS ON HIGH STAKES TESTS AND OTHER ‘MEASURES’ OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT MUST BE SITUATED IN THIS REALITY. ( Patton. J. 1998)

27. Research, Evidence,and Data Show That: • Disproportionalityis not a special education problem alone. Its problems and symptoms cannot be removed from the general education, gifted education, and higher education discourses (Artiles, A., 1998). • Civil rights concerns and ethical issues around equity and justice are involved – i.e., resegregation after Brown v. Board of Education poses neo-challenges (Patton, J., 1998).

28. Research, Evidence and Data show that: • DISPROPORTIONALITY CAN BE VIEWED AS A SYMPTOM OF THE FACT THAT CERTAIN ETHNIC GROUPS, especially males in these groups, HAVE NOT HAD OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN, TO IDENTIFY WITH EDUCATION AND ‘EDUCATIONAL’ ATTAINMENT, AND WHO “ABT” . ( Meyer, G., and Patton, J. 2001)

29. Research, Evidence and Data show that: • SOME CRITICS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION ATTRIBUTE OVERREPRESENTATION TO CULTURAL AND GENDER BIAS IN REFERRAL, TESTING, ELIGIBILITY, AND PLACEMENT PROCEDURES. (Meyer, G., and Patton, J. 2001)

30. Research, Evidence and Data show that: • SOME CRITICS POINT TO DISPROPORTIONALITY AS BEING A SYMPTOM OF THE LACK OF CULTURALLY COMPETENT AND RESPONSIVE SYSTEMS, REGULAR EDUCATION SUPPORTS AND THE LACK OF CULTURAL CONTINUITY AMONG THE HOME, SCHOOL, AND COMMUNITY AS A CAUSAL FACTOR. ( Meyer, G., and Patton, J. 2001) • DISPROPORTIONALITY HAS EXPOSED THE LACK OF TEACHER EFFICACY AS A SYMPTOM OF THE PROBLEM. ( Meyer, G., and Patton, J. 2001)

31. Research, Evidence and Data show that: • VOICES FROM CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE PARENTS, FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES ARE GENRERALLY ABSENT IN THE DISCOURSE ON DISPROPORTIONALITY. ( Meyer, G., and Patton, J. 2001)

32. Disproportionality:Vital Statistics • Regarding Discipline: • African American students with dis. are 3+ times as likely as White students with dis. to be suspended and 2.5 X more likely to be removed for more than 10 days. (Harvard Civil Rights Project, 2003).

33. WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF BEING IDENTIFIED… • A Normal Predicted Risk Ratio would be 1.0

34. Relative Risk or Odds Ratio – National • What is the risk of identification as MR for African American students, compared to the risk for White students? • African American students are 2.40 more likely than White students to be identified with MR. • One can infer from the data that this risk ratio is much higher for males. (NCCREST, 2004)

35. Mental Retardation-National • Hispanic students are less at risk than White students for identification (RI= .92%, OR = .78). • Over time there has been a substantial reduction in this category. • States with the highest RI for Black students are Mass., Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, and Indiana. • States with the highest RI for Hispanic students are Mass., Nebraska, Hawaii, and Indiana, and the highest RI are New Mexico, California, Arizona, and Texas. (NCCREST, 2004)

36. Learning Disabilities – National • Odds ratios are lowest for Asian/Pacific Islanders (0.37) and highest for American Indian/Alaskan Native students (1.24). • Odds ratios for Black and Hispanic students are close to 1.0. • The most significant pattern is the dramatic increase of children from all racial/ethnic groups in this category. • States with the highest RI for Black students are Delaware, Rhode Island, New Mexico, and Montana. • States with the highest RI for Hispanic students are Delaware, New York, and Rhode Island. (NCCREST, 2004)

37. Emotional Disorders-National • Black students, especially males, are most at risk for identification (RI=1.45%, OR = 1.59), followed by American Indian/Alaskan Native students (RI=1.03, OR =1.12). • Hispanic students are less at risk (RI= .55, OR =.60). • For all ethnic groups the risk of being classified as ED has gradually increased over the years. • States with the highest RI for Black students are Minnesota, Montana, Iowa, and Vermont. • States with the highest RI for Hispanic students are Hawaii, Vermont, Maine, and Minnesota. (NCCREST, 2004)

38. High Incidence (MR+ED+LD) in MAEC Service Area • African American students are 9.08 (DC); 2.53 (DL); 1.60 (MD); 1.47 (PA); 1.55 (VA); and 1.23 (WV) more likely than White students to be identified as HI.* *It should be noted that the MR and LD categories are probably reducing the risk ratios in the aggregate HI category. Source: USDOE, OSEP, DASystem(DANS), State Population data from the US Census http://www.census.gov. http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/. Complied by http://nccrest.eddata.net/data/index.php

39. Additional Factors that Shape Disproportionality • Misperceptions and Bias at pre- and referral stages • Teacher quality challenges (i.e., absence of highly qualified, experienced, caring and culturally competent teachers) – Teacher efficacy and value-added dimensions of teachers. (Sanders & Rivers, 2002) • Learning to read challenges • Lack of availability of English as a Second Language programs • Paucity of Prevention and Early Intervention models • Contexts, race, culture and language matter even more today

40. “The underlying phenomena in all processes in person and culture relations is that basic cultural assumptions and perceptions held by persons of different cultures seriously influence behavior, perceptions of behavior, and communication. They are the starting point of differential rewards, punishments, oppositions, consequences, and the use of power to coerce, eliminate, damage, and promote.” Spindler,G. and L. Pathways to CulturalAwareness. 1994

41. WhatIs Culture? • Integrated pattern of human behavior of a racial, ethnic, or social group including: -- Thoughts -- Communication -- Actions -- Customs -- Beliefs -- Values -- Institutions

42. A Definition of CULTURE CULTURE refers to the sum total of ways of living developed by a group of human beings to meet biological and psychological needs. Ordinarily, culture includes patterns of thought, behavior, language, customs, institutions and material objects. (Leighton,1982)

43. What Is Culture? (Cont.) Culture shapes and influences behavior; it does not determine behavior. Everyone has personal prejudices about culture that are reflections of ideas and images in society. At best we are … Limited knowledge about a cultural group produces misconceptions and misinterpretations about individuals in the culture.

44. What Is Culture? (CONT.) Verbal communication is shaped by cultural experience: • Rates of speech • Voice modulation (soft / loud) • Pauses between sentences • Use of silence in conversation • Time between questions and responses What we have learned as rude or polite affects how we view others.

45. Surface/Deep Culture—The Iceberg

46. Time as a Cultural Value “You are all three hours late and you act like you’re four days early!” Dick Gregory, activist/comedian at “They Longest Walk” rally in Washington DC, 1978, when the American Indian walkers finally arrived in the park. • What does it mean to be “on time?” • What time is “dinnertime?” • How do you feel when someone arrives “late” to a meeting? Early? • Why?

47. Communication as a Cultural Value Non-verbal communication patterns do not have the same meaning in all cultures: • Body language • Eye contact • Physical proximity • Deference • Respect How do these differences affect student/ parent/professional relationships?

48. Communication as a Cultural Value Comments form parents of color regarding their experience with professionals: “They ask questions, then do not give you time to answer them. I think they’re rude, and they think I’m just dumb.” “So many people, talking so fast and so loud! I want to say ‘explain what you mean’ but I just sat there, waiting for the meeting to end so I could run from the room.” “ The teacher cancelled my son’s IEP meeting because I brought my baby. Mom was sick and couldn’t watch her, and I could never leave her with someone not in my Family. I took the day off work for the meeting, too.”

49. Cultural Values Affect Perspective of Disability • In mainstream North American culture, “disability” is a medical or mental health condition, for which parents should seek treatment. • In some cultures, children may be seen as gifts from the Creator, which means they are to be accepted as they are. Native American languages do not have a word for “disability” • In some cultures, a child’s disability may be viewed as retribution for past family sins. • Some families of color believe that racism plays a role in their child’s identification as mental retardation or emotionally disabled. Who is correct?

50. Cultural and Class Knapsack • Assumptions about the Self and the “Other” • Perceptions and Predilections of the “Other” • Images of the “Other” • Stereotyping and Beliefs of the “Other”