MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY

1. MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY Chapter 7 pgs.156-184

2. Preview of the Lessons • Introduction • Overview of the theories in the 1960’s and 70’s. • Building a Paradigm • Robert Merton • The Functional Analysis • Information Flow Theory • The Diffusion of Innovation Theory

3. Klapper’s Phnomenistic Theory • Mass Entertainment Theory • Elite Pluralism Theory • Power Elite Theory

4. MIDLE-RANGE THEORY A theory composed of empirical generalizations based on empirical facts.

5. Introduction: • The 1950’s & 1960’s in the US was the era of the studies on the effects of television viewing. Research questions such as how was TV effecting the nation? What were the negative effects that could undermining the moral fabrics of the society? • Schramm, Lyle, Lowery, DeFleur

6. In 1960’s & 1970’s saw the Mass Communication research was dominated with the Limited Effects Paradigm (e.g. influenced by Lazarsfeld & Hovland) • These findings addresses important troubling questions concerning the role of the media. Results presented were over generalization and made sweeping assumptions based on marginal evidence.

7. The view of the media has limited effects led to other theories, namely the Functional analysis, Information Flow Theory, Diffusion of Information Theory, Phnomenistic Theory, Mass Entertainment Theory and Elite Pluralism Theory.

8. Paradigm Shift • The old paradigm (thinking) stated that: Media influence some people under some conditions but not most people under most conditions. • The new paradigm is to further explore which media influence on which people and under what conditions. • To help materialized these objectives elite funding (e.g. Rockfeller Foundation, CBS, National Science Foundation – government & corporate bodies) sponsored these research.

9. Robert Merton (1949) provided a conceptual foundation for the new paradigm. He wrote two books Socialtheory and Social structure (1949) & On the Theoretical Society (1967) that led to the development of the Middle-Range Theory.

10. The Middle Range Theory • Middle Range Theory believed that the future of social sciences lay in producing, collecting and applying empirical generalizations & constantly discovering new research questions.

11. Merton’s idea of Middle-Range Theory is as follows: • 1. It consist of limited sets of assumptions from which hypotheses were derived and confirmed by empirical evidence. • 2. These theories were not separated but rather they belongs to network.

12. 3. These theories were extremely abstract. 4. This theory cuts across between micro- sociologist problems. • 5. The theory acknowledged missing facts / shortcomings.

13. A. Functional Analysis • The study of the media for their contribution to the society ‘It created a system of balance’. (value -good or bad- is neutral) • That society consisted of complex set of interrelated activities , each of which support or dependent on each other.

14. Functionalist supported the idea that media has its functions as well as dysfunctions (Lasswell & Wright, 1960)

15. Lasswell & Wright (1960) ‘Functional analysis of mass communication’ • FUNCTIONS • 1. Surveillance: informs, provide news warning of natural dangers. • 2. Correlation: selects, interprets, criticizes. • 3. Transmissions of culture: teaches, increase cohesion.

16. 4. Entertainment: mass culture arts, music etc.

17. DYSFUNCTION • 1. Narcotization, over-exposure • 2. Enhance conformity, stereotyping, creates pseudo images. • 3. Reduces variety of subcultures, standardization • 4. Non-entertainment

18. Manifest Functions • Intended and observed consequences of media use. • Latent Functions - Unintended and less easily observed consequences of media use.

19. WEAKNESS: • Accepting the status quo. • Dysfunctions easily balance by functions. • Negative functions easily balanced by positive functions. • Rarely permits the conclusions about media’s roles.

20. Strength & Weakness of the Functional Analysis • STRENGTH: • Positions of media & their influence in larger social system. • Offers balance view of the media’s role. • Is based on empirical research.

21. B. Information Flow Theory • This is a theory of how information moves from media to audiences to have specific intended effects (information diffusion theory). • The need to know what the public need to do in times of crisis. The need to know what their leaders were doing to deal with threats from abroad is important,

22. The flow of information from elites to the public was essential to counter the threats (e.g. communists ideology, outbreak of epidemic diseases etc.)

23. In 1950’s many surveys & field experiments were conducted to access the flow of information from media to mass audience. • Among them (Frankouser & McCombs ,1971) did their studies on access of media effectiveness in transmitting informing the mass audience. The work was pattern after persuasion research. Survey research were used to gather data.

24. Persuasion research had identified numerous barriers to persuasion e.g. namely education, amount of media use for news, interest in news, talking about news, hard news (politics, science, world events) vs soft news (sports, entertainments, human interest etc). • E.g. in one instant leaflets were dropped to every household in one small town in Washington. The result was not very encouraging only very few people return the leaflets .

25. That Case No2. survey team visited certain homes and that they could earn 1 lb of free coffee by teaching a coffee slogans to their neighbors. It produces mixed results. • One hand almost every family had heard about the free coffee slogan & try to reproduced it. Unfortunately many gave the wrong slogan. There was a distortion from the original slogan. Many people are confused & distorted. i.e. free gifts were insufficient to guarantee the flow of information.

26. Possible dissertation & misunderstanding was high. Even if the media deliver accurate information of news but when it reaches most people it might be the wrong information. • The most important limitation of information flow theory is that the message must be simplistic, liner & source dominated (from the point of view of the source) e.g. authoritative source media – government etc.

27. Information Flow Theory • STRENGTHS • 1. Examine the process of mass communication in real world. • 2. Provides theoretical basis for successful public information campaigns. • 3. Identify barriers to information flow. • 4. Helps understand information flow during crisis.

28. WEAKNESSES • 1. Too simplistic, liner, source dominated. • 2. Assumes ignorant, apathetic audience. • 3. Fails to consider utility or value of information for receiver. • 4. Is too accepting of status quo.

30. C. Information Diffusion Theory • This theory explains how innovations are introduced and adopted by various communities.

31. The Diffusion Theory • Rogers (1962) combines all – i.e. the theory of information flow, personal influence including that of (anthropology, sociology & rural agriculture). He viewed thousands (10,000+) of studies. Information diffusion theory guided his research & facilitate interpretation of it.

32. He extended the Lazarfeld’s original Two-step flow theory (the role of intermediaries) with diffusion theory was so successful that information flow theory became known as Information Diffusion Theory.

33. When new technological innovation was adopted they will pass through several stages before they are widely adopted.

34. Stages of Roger’s innovation decision process (mental – five levels) are as follows: • Knowledge • Persuasion • Decision • Implementation • Confrontation

35. Stages of Roger’s decision-making process are as follows: 1. Innovators (Awareness), 2. Early Adopters, 3. Early Majority (Opinion 4. Leaders), 5. Late Majority (Opinion leaders & Followers ) and 6. Laggards

36. EARLY ADOPTERS • People who adopt an innovation early even before significant amounts of information are received. • Opinion leaders • Opinion followers • Laggards

37. Significant of Roger’s contributions: • a. Diffusion contribute little to the role of mass media. • b. Media only creates awareness. • c. Only the early adopters directly influence by media contents. • c. Diffusion efforts led by change agent (early adopters & opinion leaders)

38. Media only draw attention to innovations as the basis of group discussions led by change agents. • Information diffusion theory was consistent with limited effect thinking.

39. The Diffusion Implications: • Rogers’s theory was very influential. • During the cold war (50’s & 60’s) between U.S./ U.S.S.R, US using this theory propagate ‘agricultural revolution’ in the Third World countries. Rogers’s theory became a training manual. Change agents around the world were brought to Michigan State University to learn the theory.

40. Many of these people became academics in their home countries. • This theory was very consistent with most findings from effect surveys and persuasion experiments, & very practical.

41. Limitations of this theory were that although innovations were adopted often times these innovation were not well understood or even desired or did not guarantee its long terms success (e.g. too mush fertilizers in India or complex machinery breaks down as soon the change agent left)

42. STRENGTHS • Integrates large amount of empirical findings into useful theory. • Provides practical guide for information campaigns in US & abroad.

43. WEAKNESSES • It is a liner and source dominated theory • Underestimate the power of the media esp. the contemporary media • Stimulates adaptation by groups that don’t understand or want the innovations

45. D. Phnomenistic Theory (Reinforcement Theory) • This theory reveals that media are rarely the sole cause of effects & are relatively powerless when compare with other social factors.

46. Developed by Klapper (1960). • He argued that media hardly had any direct effects & powerless when compare with other social & psychological factors such as social status, group members, attitudes, education etc.

47. According to Klapper: • 1. Mass communication does not serve sufficient cause of audience effects. Effects are cause by other mediating factors and influences. • 2. The mediating factors are only a contributory agent but not a sole cause.

48. Klapper’s argued that there are just too many barriers to media influence for drastic changes to occur except under very unusual circumstances

49. STRENGTH • Combines impressive amount of research into convincing theory. • Highlight roles of mediating variables in mass communication process. • Refutes mass society notions

50. WEAKNESSES • Overstates the roles of mediating factors. • Too accepting status quo position. • Downplays reinforcements as important media effect. • Too specific of its own time.