Practice Essay “Bullet Points”

1. Practice Essay “Bullet Points” learning from the practice essay for the mid-term, final, and comp exams

2. General Strategies • As you’re writing, think general concepts and synthesis of ideas. You do not need small details or direct quotes. • You do not need a References page. Use in-text citations, however, with a year (or at least decade). (Points were not deducted for References pages on the practice essay). • The form is an “essay,” i.e. academic in nature. Do not use contractions; use signaling language and include organizational strategies for cohesion and flow. Bulleted lists of main ideas are not acceptable.

3. General Strategies, cont’d • It is often helpful to restate the question in your own words as part of the introduction. Try to write only sentences that add information to the answer. Do not tell me things I already know (e.g., “teaching is more challenging every day…” could be lovely in a report; it is wrong for this assignment.) • Please keep in mind that the focus when grading exams is on the content and quality of the response and not necessarily on the number of pages.Responses that are too long or repeat the same few ideas will lose points. I know you cannot write everything you know in such a short time…write the most important things.

4. General Strategies, cont’d • Include a thorough definition of the key theory, hypothesis, etc. at the beginning of the essay. Succinctly include origins of the theory. • Make careful word choices. If a term has a specific meaning relating to your theory, hypothesis, etc. do not use it in a more general way. For example, do not use language to mean “terminology” or “style” when discussing IL; do not use parameters to mean “limits” or “restrictions” when discussing UG. Defining terms as they relate to your specific theory, hypothesis, etc. is highly recommended.

5. Key Concepts for IL • ILs are systematic (rule-based). • ILs are variable. • ILs exhibit common developmental sequences. • ILs are influenced by L1. Rate of IL development may be hindered (including the addition of sub-stages) or accelerated by one’s L1. • Task type, linguistic structure, length of discourse, & interlocutor influence ILs.

6. Key Concepts for IL, cont’d • ILs are a representation of the learner’s current understanding of the language. • Errors are seen as evidence of ILs. • ILs are considered by some to be dialects in their own right. • Cross-linguistic influence, Markedness Differential Hypothesis, Perceived transferability, U-shaped behavior • Criticisms of IL include its original exclusion of social factors (such as interlocutor and context).

7. Key Concepts for IL, cont’d • Pedagogical applications include learner corpora, targeted instruction, consideration of developmental sequences. • Corder(1967), Selinker (1972), Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991), Tarone (1997), Hamilton (2001), Ellis (1985), Dulay and Burt (1974), Sharwood Smith (1983), Zobl (1982), Eckman (1985), Kellerman (1977, 1985)

8. Key Concepts for PL • Psycholinguistics is concerned with mental processes. • Psycholinguistics investigates how acquisition takes place; the role of the brain and mental processes in acquisition. • Psycholinguistics considers the processes involved in first language acquisition compared to those in second language acquisition.

9. Key Concepts for PL, cont’d • Psycholinguistics considers how and when L1 impacts SLA. • Psycholinguistic theories of acquisition either believe the brain has a special faculty for language learning or that language learning entails the same processes as other types of learning. In other words, theories are either UG based or non-UG based. • Pedagogical applications include focus on input, attention to cognitive development, frequency, and type of instruction that may facilitate intake.

10. Key Concepts for PL, cont’d • Universal Grammar, cross-linguistic influence, multi-competence, interlanguage (thus far) • Chomsky, Cook, Corder, Kellerman, Sharwood Smith, Larsen-Freeman & Long

11. Key Concepts for UG • Language acquisition is innate. • Language learning is modular (different than other types of learning). • A special language faculty in the brain ensures language acquisition. • Language acquisition is unconscious; the child is “passive” even though the mind is very active.

12. Key Concepts for UG, cont’d • I-langauge (competence); E-langauge (performance) • UG concerned only with competence as this is the only source of actual knowledge. • Poverty of the stimulus • Principles and Parameters

13. Key Concepts for UG, cont’d • Universal principles which all languages have access to; parameters which are how specific languages specify principles. • Parameters are set once the child receives input. • Input is necessary, but only a minimal amount (cluster of properties principle). • The lexicon contains all knowledge of language (e.g. syntactic, morphological); once language has been acquired, the lexicon is at its final state.

14. Key Concepts for UG, cont’d • Debated applications of UG to SLA; four alternative hypotheses. • Pedagogical “extractions” include a focus on input, the Natural Approach, IL, developmental sequences