Chapter 2 Understanding and Apply Theories of Career Development

1. Publisher to insert cover image here Chapter 2 Understanding and Apply Theories of Career Development Developed by: Jennifer Del Corso

2. Questions to Ask About Theories How well does the theory describe the career development process for diverse populations? describe the career development process generally? identify the factors involved in career choice?

3. Questions to Ask About Theoriescontinued How well does the theory inform practice? provide documentation of empirical support? cover all aspects of career development?

4. Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory A differential-developmental-social-phenomenological career theory (Super, 1969) Super conceptualized career as “the life course of a person encountering series of developmental tasks and attempting to handle them in such a way as to become the kind of person he or she wants to become” (Super, 1990, pp.225-226). Asserts that career choice is a developmental process (rather than a single decisions) that spans across the life span. Super’s life span, life-space theory is segmented into three elements: life span, life space, and self-concept

5. Life-Span The Life span component of Super’s Life Span, Life-space theory addresses the longitudinal expression of career behavior and includes the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Each stage contains an age range and developmental tasks. Career maturity- the career decision-making readiness of children and adolescence Career adaptability- the career decision making readiness of adults

6. Life Span Growth (Childhood) - fantasy, interests, capacities Exploration (Adolescence) - crystallizing, specifying, implementing Establishment (Early Adulthood) - stabilizing, consolidating, advancing Maintenance (Middle Adulthood) - holding, updating, innovating Disengagement (Late Adulthood) - decelerating, retirement planning, retirement living

7. Life Space The life space segment of Super’s theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work as it is expressed via different life roles (home, school, workplace, community). The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life cycle; the total structure is the career pattern. (Super)

8. Life Spacecontinued The salience people attach to the constellation of life roles they play defines life structure. The life space segment of the theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work.

9. Life Roles People tend to play some or all of nine major roles: Son or daughter Student Leisurite Citizen Worker Spouse (Partner) Homemaker Parent Pensioner

10. Life Roles The theaters for these life roles are the home, school, workplace, and community.

11. Self-Concept Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms. (Super, 1984) Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements. Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.

12. Career Development and Assessment (C-DAC Model) Super and his colleagues translated the three segments of the theory into the C-DAC Model. Assessments used in the model include Career Development Inventory Adult Career Concerns Inventory Salience Inventory Values Scale Self-Directed Search

13. Contextual Factors Influencing Life-Role Salience Life role self-concepts are shaped by: the dominant culture the culture of one’s origin Important to examine one’s life-role participation holistically and can be clarified by using two different methods: actuarial method developmental method

14. Evaluating Super’s Theory Super’s framework has been “generally supported” from the research (Fitzgerald, 1996). Other authors (Salmone, 1996; Borgen, 1991; Brown, 1996) each assert that Super’s theory has withstood the test of time over the past 40 years.

15. Anne Roe’s Personality Theory of Career Choice Anne Roe (1904-1991), a clinical psychologist, considered the impact of children’s early child-rearing environments on their later career choice Drawing upon Maslow’s (1954) needs theory, Roe suggests that unmet needs become important motivators in the occupational choices people make

16. Roe’s Theory of Career Choice (cont.) Roe identified three primary modes of child rearing environments: emotional concentration (overprotection-overdemanding), avoidance (neglecting needs) acceptance (physical and psychological needs are met) Roe suggests individuals choose occupation fields based on their need structures.

17. Evaluating Roe’s Theory Researchers have been challenged to validate Roe’s theoretical assumptions due to the variability of parenting style and early life environments by members of same occupation Little empirical support for this theory given the inherent challenge of longitudinal causality studies

18. Linda Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation Offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development Gottfredson’s theory answers the question, “Why do children seem to re-create the social inequalities of their elders long before they themselves experience any barriers to pursuing their dreams?

19. Gottfredson’s Theorycontinued Circumscription - the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class Compromise - the process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors, such as availability of jobs

20. Circumscription: Stages of Development Stage 1: Orientation to size and power Stage 2: Orientation to sex roles Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation Stage 4: Orientation to the internal, unique self

21. Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice Programs should be sensitive to the mental capabilities of the age group. introduce students to the full breadth of options. display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives. be sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscriptions and compromise take place so that their role can be explored.

22. Gottfredson’s Criteria for Determining a Counselee’s Restriction of Options Able to name one or more occupational options Possesses interests and abilities adequate for the occupation(s) chosen Satisfied with the alternatives identified Has not unnecessarily restricted alternatives Is aware of opportunities and realistic about obstacles

23. Evaluating Gottfredson’s Theory Overall, research related to Gottfredson’s theory has not been extensive and existing research results have been equivocal. One research study did find that occupational aspirations, ability, and gender were significantly related to career achievement in later life and that adolescent girls achieved less career success in mid-life than adolescent boys.

24. John Holland’s Theory of Types and Person-Environment Interactions Holland’s theory has been described as structural-interactive because it provides an explicit link between various personality characteristics and corresponding job titles and because it organizes massive data about people and jobs

25. Holland’s Theory of Person-Environment Interactions Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

26. Theoretical Assumptions of Holland’s Theory Individuals can be categorized as one of six types (investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional) People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities and express their attitudes and values; The more a person resembles any particular personality type, the more likely it is that the person will manifest the behaviors and traits associated with that type. Goal is to match a person’s vocational personal type to a matching environment

27. Holland’s Theorycontinued There are six environments: Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

28. The Realistic Type Conforming Humble Frank Materialistic Persistent Genuine Practical Hardheaded Shy Honest Thrifty

29. The Investigative Type Analytical Independent Cautious Intellectual Pessimistic Introverted Precise Critical Rational Curious Reserved

30. The Artistic Type Imaginative Original Disorderly Impractical Intuitive Emotional Impulsive Nonconforming Expressive Open

31. The Social Type Idealistic Helpful Cooperative Kind Sympathetic Friendly Patient Tactful Generous Responsible Understanding

32. The Enterprising Type Domineering Optimistic Adventurous Energetic Pleasure-seeking Extroverted Ambitious Impulsive Self-confident Sociable Popular

33. The Conventional Type Conforming Inhibited Persistent Conscientious Obedient Practical Careful Orderly Thrifty Efficient Unimaginative

34. The Realistic Environment Requires explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, or animals Encourages people to view themselves as having mechanical ability Rewards people for displaying conventional values and encourages them to see the world in simple, tangible, and traditional terms

35. The Investigative Environment Requires the symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological or cultural phenomena Encourages scientific competencies and achievements and seeing the world in complex and unconventional ways Rewards people for displaying scientific values

36. The Artistic Environment Requires participation in ambiguous, free, and unsystematized activities to create art forms or products Encourages people to view themselves as having artistic abilities and to see themselves as expressive, nonconforming, independent, and intuitive Rewards people for the display of artistic values

37. The Social Environment Requires participation in activities that inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten Requires people to see themselves as liking to help others, as being understanding of others, and of seeing the world in flexible ways Rewards people for the display of social values

38. The Enterprising Environment Requires participation in activities that involve the manipulation of others to attain organizational and self-interest goals Requires people to view themselves as aggressive, popular, self-confident, and sociable Encourages people to view the world in terms of power and status Rewards people for displaying enterprising goals and values

39. The Conventional Environment Requires participation in activities that involve the explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of data Requires people to view themselves as conforming, orderly, nonartistic, and as having clerical competencies Rewards people for viewing the world in stereotyped and conventional ways

40. Key Terms Differentiation - the degree of difference between a person’s resemblance to one type and to other types; the shape of a profile of interests Congruence - the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current or prospective work environment

41. Key Termscontinued Consistency - degree of relatedness between types Vocational identity - possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent

42. Applying Holland’s Theory Relies on assessment instruments used to measure congruence, differentiation, consistency, and vocational identity: Self-Directed Search Vocational Preference Inventory My Vocational Situation Position Classification Inventory

43. Applying Holland’s Theory Code can be used to identify occupations, jobs, majors, and leisure activities Types can be used to organize curriculum, career fairs, and information about occupations, jobs, and majors

44. Evaluating Holland’s Theory Holland’s theory has been subjected to more empirical tests than any other career theory. Overall there is considerable support for his theory: personality types remain stable over time, interests are significant predictors of occupational choices; and the RIASEC model was related to better career decision making outcomes among college student. Using the SDS as a stand-alone intervention and found it is not effective for increasing career exploration in college students Sverko, Babarovic, and Medugorac (2014) validated that the Pictorial and Descriptive Interest Inventory (PDII) is a reliable measure of RIASEC types

45. Krumboltz’s Learning Theory: Influential Factors Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control Instrumental and associative learningexperiences Task-approach skills

46. Outcomes of the Factors Influencing Career Decision Making Self-observation generalizations Worldview generalizations Task approach skills Actions

47. Reasons Why People Prefer a Particular Occupation They succeed at tasks they believe are like those performed in that occupation. They have observed a valued model being reinforced for activities like those performed by members of that occupation. A valued friend or relative stressed its advantages to them; they observed positive words and images associated with it.

48. The Learning Theory of Career Counseling (Mitchell & Krumboltz) Counselors must be prepared to help clients cope with career concerns in four ways: Expand their capabilities and interests Prepare them for changing work tasks Empower them to take action Play a major role in dealing with all career problems

49. Career Counselors Need to Help Clients by Correcting faulty assumptions. Learning new skills and interests. Identifying effective strategies for addressing issues emanating from interactions between work and other life roles. Learning skills for coping with changing work tasks.

50. Applying Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) Krumboltz (1996) divides career development in two categories: developmental/preventative and targeted/remedial Application of LTCC entails: goal clarification cognitive restructuring, cognitive rehearsal, narrative analysis, role playing, desensitization, paradoxical intention, and humor Career Beliefs Inventory is primary assessment used in LTCC