Independence and Development in the Global South

1. Independence and Development in the Global South Edited By Mr. Barkhau Shamelessly stolen from: http://conaapwh.weebly.com/class-powerpoints.html

2. The Global South • “The Global South” = formerly labeled “third-world countries” during the Cold War  now often referred to as “developing nations” • “Decolonization” = term for the Global South’s independence from European rule

3. The Global South • Challenges facing the Global South after decolonization: • The legacies of empire • Deep divisions of language, ethnicity, religion, and class • Rapidly growing populations • Competing demands of the capitalist West and the communist East • Developing economies, stable politics, and coherent nations all at the same time

4. The End of Empire in World History • Dissolution of empires = nothing new • Think about the end of older empires  Assyrians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Mongols, etc. • What’s different about the end of these empires? • Mobilization of the masses within the colonies around a nationalist ideology • Creation of a large number of independent nation-states following the empire’s breakdown  each claiming an equal place in the world Kwame Nkrumah after leaving prison in 1951 Led Ghana to national independence in 1957

5. Nation-States Created

6. Explaining African and Asian Independence • The “Contradictions” Explanation = fundamental contradictions existed within the entire colonial enterprise that made its demise inevitable

7. Explaining African and Asian Independence • International circumstances that led to the end of these empires: • Both world wars = weakened Europe • Both world wars = discredited any sense of European moral superiority • U.S. and Soviet Union = new global superpowers = opposed the older European colonial empires • United Nations = platform from which nations could express anticolonial views

8. Explaining African and Asian Independence:Economic and Social Circumstances • By the mid-20th century = 2nd and 3rd generation Western-educated elites (mostly male) had arisen throughout the colonial world • Familiar with European culture and aware of the gaps between its values and its practices • Didn’t see colonial rule as a vehicle for their peoples’ progress • Increasingly insisted on independence

9. Explaining African and Asian Independence:Economic and Social Circumstances • Other groups that believed independence held promise: • Veterans of the world wars • Young people with some education but no job opportunities • Urban workers = aware of their exploitation • Small-scale traders = resentful of European privileges • Rural dwellers = lost land or suffered from forced labor • Poor and insecure newcomers to the cities Decolonization of India

10. Explaining African and Asian Independence • The “Agency” Explanation = focuses on particular groups or individuals whose deliberate actions brought down the colonial system • “Agency” = deliberate initiatives of historical actors

11. Explaining African and Asian Independence • In some areas, the colonial rulers themselves got involved and actively planned for decolonization • Negotiated settlements • Invested in infrastructure • Helped form constitutions and set up elections • In most areas, however, independence was a struggle • Variations in struggles for independence: • Length of time = a few years vs. decades • Approach = nonviolence vs. violent guerrilla warfare Jawarhalal Nehru and Lord Mountbatten of England

12. Explaining African and Asian Independence • Commonalities in struggles for independence: • Gradual involvement of ordinary people, not limited to just the leaders and educated few • A highly contested process • Efforts were rarely cohesive movements of uniformly oppressed people • Conflicting groups and parties • Different classes, ethnic groups, religions, regions, etc. • Struggled with one another over leadership, power, strategy, ideology, and the distribution of material gains Freedom Fighters in Kenya

13. Independence of India • British colonial rulers promoted a growing sense of “Indian” identity: • British never assimilated into Indian society, unlike rulers in the past  had a sharp sense of racial and cultural distinctiveness • India’s many regions and peoples bound together by: British railroads, telegraph lines, postal services, administrative networks, newspapers, schools, and the English language

14. Indian National Congress • Indian National Congress (INC) = established in 1885 • Association of English-educated Indians = lawyers, journalists, teachers, businessmen, etc. • Based in the cities • Had difficulty gaining a mass following among the peasants because such an elite organization • Initial goal = to gain greater inclusion within the political, military, and business life of British India • NOT the overthrow of British rule

15. Indian National Congress • More Indians began to join the INC after: • WWI  the British had promised Indians more self-governing institutions if they helped in WWI • British attacks on Ottoman Empire in WWI  upset India’s many Muslims • Flu epidemic hit India after WWI  millions of Indians died • Repressive actions by British rulers • Ex: about 400 Indians killed who defied a ban on public meetings Indian troops fighting on behalf of Great Britain in World War I

16. Mohandas Gandhi • 1893 = accepted a job with an Indian law firm in South Africa • Witnessed overt racial segregation for the first time • Organized Indians (mostly Muslims) in South Africa to protest these policies of racial segregation • Developed a concept of a free India that included Hindus and Muslims alike • Developed political philosophy called satyagraha (truth force) = confrontational, though nonviolent, approach to political action Gandhi as a young lawyer in South Africa

17. Mohandas Gandhi • 1914 = Gandhi returned to India and became a leader in the INC • Gandhi’s simple and unpretentious lifestyle, support of Muslims, frequent reference to Hindu themes, and nonviolent approach drew support from a wide range of Indians: • Peasants and the urban poor • Intellectuals and artisans • Capitalists and socialists • Hindus and Muslims • The INC became a mass organization Gandhi back in India (1915)

18. Mohandas Gandhi • Gandhi’s platform: • Sought the moral transformation of individuals • Worked to raise the status of India’s untouchables • Opposed a modern industrial framework for India • Wanted a society of harmonious and self-sufficient villages drawing on ancient Indian principles of duty and morality

19. Divisions and Conflict within the INC • Many did believe science, technology, and industry were essential to India’s future • Like Gandhi’s chief lieutenant = Jawaharlal Nehru • Not everyone embraced nonviolence  existence of Hindu militant groups • Not everyone wanted an “inclusive” India  some Hindu groups expressed hatred of Muslims and wanted India to be a Hindu nation • Many believed focus on the position of women and untouchables distracted from the main goal of independence from Britain • Some favored participation in British-sponsored legislative bodies without complete independence

20. Divisions and Conflict within the INC • Most serious threat to a unified movement = divide between the Hindu and Muslim populations • 1906 = formation of the All-India Muslim League • Feared domination by the Hindu majority • Muslim League argued that the parts of India that had a Muslim majority should have a separate political status • Wanted to call it Pakistan = “land of the pure” Members of the All-India Muslim League

21. The Partition of India • Gandhi and the INC agreed to partition India when the British declared their intention to leave after WWII • 1947 = colonial India became independent as two separate nations • Hindu India • Muslim Pakistan (divided into West and East Pakistan)

22. The Partition of India • Partition of India accompanied by severe violence: • 1 million people or more died in the communal violence • About 12 million refugees moved from one country to another to be with their religious allies • 1948 = Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu extremist Gandhi’s Funeral

23. Ending Apartheid in South Africa • Freedom struggle in South Africa = against an internal opponent, NOT an occupying colonial power • South Africa = independent since 1910 • Independence granted to the white settler minority • Economically prominent = whites of British descent • Politically dominant = Boers or Afrikaners = white descendants of early Dutch settlers from the 1600s • Black African majority = had no political rights at all

24. Ending Apartheid in South Africa • Unlike India, South Africa had developed a mature industrial economy by the mid-1900s • Black Africans dependent upon this white-controlled economy  worked in urban industries, mines, or on white-owned farms • This dependence made them compliant with repressive actions of the colonial rulers • Only benefit = could threaten to collectively withdraw their labor Johannesburg, South Africa (1952)

25. The African National Congress • African National Congress (ANC) = established in 1912 • Association of educated, professional, and middle-class Africans • Original goal = to be accepted as “civilized men” within the existing order, NOT to overthrow it • Pursued peaceful and moderate protest for about 40 years = petitions, multiracial conferences, representatives appealing to the authorities • It became clear that these methods weren’t working

26. The African National Congress • 1950s = ANC had new and younger leadership, which included Nelson Mandela • Broadened base of support • Nonviolent civil disobedience = boycotts, strikes, demonstrations, burning of black African passes

27. The African National Congress • Responses by the South African government: • Increased repression  including shooting at unarmed demonstrators • Banned the ANC • Imprisoned ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela • Banned all other major political parties Sharpeville, South Africa (1960) For 2 days, police machine-gunned unarmed crowds protesting apartheid

28. The Freedom Struggle Intensifies • Underground nationalist leaders turned to armed struggle • Organized acts of sabotage and assassination; prepared for guerrilla warfare • Black Consciousness Movement = an effort to foster pride, unity, and political awareness among South Africa’s black African majority • Mostly made up of student groups • 1976 = explosion of protest in Soweto (outside of Johannesburg) • Segregated and impoverished black neighborhood • Hundreds were killed

29. The Freedom Struggle Intensifies • Momentum from the protest in Soweto continued • Spreading urban violence and radicalization of urban young people • Mid-1980s = government declared a state of emergency • 1986 (to commemorate 10th anniversary of Soweto uprising) = Congress of South African Trade Unions organized a mass strike involving about 2 million workers

30. International Pressure to End Apartheid • South Africa was excluded from most international sporting events, including the Olympics • Artists and entertainers refused to perform in South Africa • Many countries enacted economic boycotts • Many countries withdrew their private investment funds • All of these factors isolated South Africa from the world

31. The End of Apartheid • Late 1980s = White South African leaders agreed to a process of negotiations with African nationalist leaders that led to: • The abandonment of apartheid policies • The release of Nelson Mandela from prison • The legalization of the ANC • National elections in 1994 • Brought the ANC to power • Nelson Mandela = new president of South Africa

32. Experiments in Political Order:Comparing African Nations and India

33. Experiments in Political Order • Efforts to create political order across the developing world had to battle many conditions: • Exploding populations • High (and unrealistic) expectations following independence • Lack of available resources to meet these expectations • Diverse populations that had little loyalty to the new central state • Large areas with widespread poverty and weak private economies

34. Experiments in Political Order • Wide range of political systems were established throughout the developing world: • Communist regimes • Multi-party democracies • One-party democracies • Military regimes • Personal dictatorships and tyrannies

35. India’s Political Evolution A woman voting in the 2008 state election in India • In India = Western-style democracy practiced continuously since independence • Regular elections • Peaceful changes in government • Multiple political parties • Civil rights and liberties

36. India’s Political Evolution:Why Democracy Worked • Struggle for independence in India was much longer than struggles in Africa = gave Indian leaders time to figure out how they wanted to structure the new state • The British gradually gave power over to the Indians = over several decades prior to independence in 1947 • Many Indians possessed administrative and technical skills as a result • Nationalist movement in India = within one political party (Congress Party) • Committed to democracy

37. Rejection of Democracy in Africa: Why? • Theory #1 = Africans just weren’t ready for democracy or lacked the “ingredients” for democratic politics • Africa’s traditional culture = based on communal rather than individualist values  not compatible with the competitiveness of party politics • Lack of an educated electorate, middle-class, and strong capitalist economy

38. Rejection of Democracy in Africa: Why? A little cell phone action… • Theory #2 = Democracy was not an adequate system for developing a modern economy • Competing political parties (that don’t always agree) = would slow down the process of creating national unity and developing a modern economy

39. Rejection of Democracy in Africa: Why? Example: Genocide in Rwanda in 1994 • The following conditions that existed within many initial democratic governments in Africa undermined popular support for democracy: • Widespread economic disappointment • Class resentments due to increased inequalities and competition for jobs, housing, education, etc. • Ethnic conflicts, which sometimes turned violent

40. Alternatives to Democracy Military Leaders in Mali • Most common alternative = government by soldiers • By the early 1980s = the military actively governed about 15 African nations • These militaries: • Took power during times of crisis • Claimed the nation was in danger and that only they could restore order • Got rid of old political parties and constitutions • Vowed to return power to civilians and restore democracy “at some point”

41. Revival of Democracy in Africa: 1980s Nigerian Voter in 2011 • Failure of authoritarian governments to fix disastrous economic situations became evident • Variety of grassroots movements began that demanded democratic change in order to better their lives: • Disaffected students, religious organizations, urban workers, women’s groups • Encouragement from world events  End of apartheid in South Africa; fall of communism; etc.

42. Experiments in Economic Development:Changing Priorities, Varying Outcomes

43. Obstacles to Economic Development Most societies = sharply divided by class, religion, ethnic group, and gender Explosive population growth In most places = colonial rule had provided only the most basic foundations for modern development (if anything at all) Low literacy rates Few people with managerial experience Weak private economies Inefficient transportation systems Little leverage with the wealthy nations of the Global North

44. The Role of the State • Most people expected that state authorities would take responsibility for developing the economy  Why? • Private economies = weakly developed • Entrepreneurs = didn’t have funds to invest • Successful Soviet industrialization under state direction = hopeful • State control = could protect people against the inequalities that came with capitalism

45. The Role of the State • In the late 20th century, the support for state-directed economies faded and more people began to favor market economies  Why? • Collapse of the Soviet Union = the world’s first state-dominated economy • Evident failure, mismanagement, and corruption of many state-run enterprises • International organizations (like the World Bank) = pushed developing countries in a capitalist direction • The switch to market economies led to rapid economic growth in many nations (ex: China and India), but it also created inequalities and social conflict

46. Issues with Economic Development • “Urban bias” = too much focus on city-based industrial development and neglect or exploitation of rural areas and agriculture • “Male bias” = encouraging men to work in modern industries and women to work in agriculture • Debate over capital and technology-drive projects versus investment in “human capital” • Capital-driven projects = dams, factories, etc. • “Human capital” investment = education, technical training, health care, nutrition, etc.

47. Issues with Economic Development • Benefits versus drawbacks of foreign aid, investment, and trade • Every economic decision (where to locate schools, factories, etc.) was political • Always resulted in winners and losers in terms of power, advantage, and wealth

48. Varied Results of Economic Experiments Cocoa Farming in Ghana Durban, South Africa • Various reasons for such sharp differences in economic results: • Geography and natural resources • Differing colonial experiences • Variations in regional cultures • Degree of political stability and social equality • State economic policies • Population growth rates • Varying forms of involvement with the world economy