COM215 800

1. COM215 800 Taejin Jung, Ph.D. Week 8: Theory & Public Opinions

2. The Movement toward Theory • A significant advancement in PR - “Wisdom” or “Seat-of-the-pants” thinking → Reasoned action guided by “Theory” - Moved from “hunches” to “reasoned action” • Theory - A systematic interpretation of a phenomenon that specifies the relationship between variables. • Three objectives of theory - Organization/Explanation: why things occur regularly - Prediction: Anticipate what outcomes and effects will occur - Control: Which action will be most effective or appropriate/Theory suggest guidelines for behavior

3. Language of Theory • A phenomenon - The event of thing you are trying to explain - Newton wanted to explain why things always fall down and not up • Concepts or variables - Process that would be hard to discuss if we do not give them a name - A form of short hand: “A force that draws things down” → “gravity” • Propositions - Relationships between variables and establish the assumption - Postulates or axioms - “Hypotheses” is the tested form of propositions • Hypotheses - Conjectural or speculative relationships between two or more variables that can be tested empirically • Theory building - Asking → Observing → Theorizing → Checking

4. Ecological Approach • Ecology & Interdependence - Public Relations is to help organizations adjust and adapt to their environment - Proactive > Reactive • System (Organization) Perspective - Goals - Interacting units (Organization & Publics) - Enduring time → The ultimate goal of systems is “survival” • Definition (Target or Boundary) of the Public - Those with whom the organization mush establish and maintain enduring and mutually beneficially relationship (e.g., student recruiting, capital campaign for computer center)

5. Open vs. Closed Systems Goal States (Homeostasis) “Structure” and “Process” (Morphogenesis) Variation in the Environment (Input) • Social systems are relatively open or relatively closed. • Extent of closeness = Degree of insensitivity to their environment • Open systems are adroit at continually responding to change of any sort in their environment

6. Excellence Theory • Evolved from the work of James E. Grunig • “What are the characteristics of an excellent communication department?” • Public relations can be a part of planning and decision making (dominant coalition) • Excellence theory is the search for factors that make public relations “excellent” • Studied 327 organizations and refined a list of principles or factors of excellence

7. Characteristics of Excellent PR Programs • Program Level 1. Managed strategically • Department Level 2. A single or integrated PR department 3. Separate function of marketing 4. Direct reporting relationship to senior management 5. Two-way symmetrical model 6. Senior PR person in the managerial role 7. Academic training in PR & professionalism 8. Equal opportunity for men and women III. Organizational Level 9. Participative rather than authoritarian culture 10. Symmetrical system of internal communication 11. Organic rather than mechanical organizational structure • Effects of Excellent Public Relations 12. Programs meet communication objectives 13. Reduces costs of regulation, pressure, and litigation 14. Job satisfaction is high among employees.

8. Contingency Theory • Evolved from the work of Glen T. Cameron • Focus on managing the conflict between an organization and its publics • Pure Advocacy-----------------Pure Accommodation - Advocacy: each group pursues its own self-interests - Accommodation: each party considers the other party’s interests - The response of conflict is some mix of advocacy and accommodation • Contingencies are the contributing factors for the selection of strategies • Cameron identified 86 contingent variables and 12 factors

9. ◙ External Factors External threats Industry environments Political/social/cultural environment Public power Public relationships ◙ Internal Factors Organization’s development Organization’s structure PR department independence PR department government Top management characteristic Individual characteristics Individual capabilities Contingency Theory(Shin, Carmeron, & Cropp, 2006)

10. Basics of Communication • S – M – C – R – (E) • Sender - Writer must know the organization’s objective • Message - Research on receiver’s current attitude - Must be applicable, realistic, convincing • Media - Select one or more fit into the audience • Receiver - Think of “publics” or “stakeholder” - The more you segment, the better you understand

11. Two-Step Flow Theory • The People’s Choice Study Introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld in The People’s Choice Study (1944) focused on the process of decision-making during the presidential election. • Findings Direct influence of mass media on voting intentions  informal, personal contact were more influential • Assumptions a. Individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information b. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors. Mass Media O/L O/L O/L

12. Uses & Gratifications Approach • Riley & Riley (1951): Children in groups of peers used adventure stories from the media for group game. • Replacing question “What do media to do people?”  “what do people do with the media?” • Basic assumptions - The audience is active, and mass media use is goal oriented. - Audience determine their need and specific media choice. - The media compete with other sources of possible need satisfication. • Individual needs categories (McQuail, Blumler & Brown, 1972) - Diversion (emotional release) - Personal relationships (social utility of information conversations) - Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding) - Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks)

13. Agenda-Setting Theory • Media set agenda in terms of “what people think about” Amount of Coverage Given by National News Magazines to Various Issues during the 1960s & Rank Scores o f the Issues as “Most Important Problem Facing America” During that Period

14. What to say (Agenda-setting) vs. How to say (Media Framing) Four functions of media framing (R. Entman) - Frames define problems - Frames diagnose causes - Frames make moral judgments - Frames suggest remedies ◙ Coverage of Terrorism Contextual coverage - Analyzing terrorism as a general political problem influenced by economical and political oppression, global politics, and local political turmoil. - Assigning responsibility to factors in society as a whole Eventual coverage - Focus on scenes of aircraft hijackings, hostage situations, and bombings. -Assign causal responsibility for terrorism to particular individuals and groups. Framing Theory

15. Cultivation Theory • By George Gerbner • “Cultivation” means the teaching of a common worldview, common roles, and common values. • Tries to determine if watching television influences viewers ideas of what their world is like. • The heavy television viewers often give answers that are closer to the way the world is portrayed on television. • Heavy television watching makes people feel that the world is an unsafe place ( Fearful people might welcome repression if it helps to reduce their anxieties, e.g., Dept. of Homeland Security) • What percentage of the world’s population lives in the US?