Chapter 20

1. Chapter 20 Applied Psychology

2. Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O) • Applied Psychology: Use of psychological principles and research methods to solve practical problems • Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O): Focuses on psychology of people at work and in organizations • Typically work in: • Testing and placement • Human relations at work

3. Other Aspects of I-O Psychology • Personnel Psychology: Branch of I-O psychology concerned with testing, selection, placement, and promotion • Job Analysis: Detailed description of skills, knowledge, and activities required by a particular job • Critical Incidents: Situations where competent employees must be able to cope • Biodata: Detailed biographical information

4. Fig. 20.1 Analyzing complex skills has also been valuable to the U.S. Air Force. When milliondollar aircraft and the lives of pilots are at stake, it makes good sense to do as much training and research as possible on the ground. Air force psychologists use flight simulators like the one pictured here to analyze the complex skills needed to fly jet fighters. Skills can then be taught without risk on the ground. The General Electric simulator shown here uses a computer to generate full-color images that respond realistically to a pilot’s use of the controls. (Photograph supplied courtesy of General Electric Company.)

5. Psychological Testing • Vocational Interest Tests: Paper-and-pencil test that assesses a person’s interests and matches them to interests found in successful workers in various occupations • Strong Campbell Interest Inventory is one such example • Aptitude Tests: Rate a person’s potential to learn skills or tasks used in various occupations

6. Psychological Testing (cont.) • Multimedia Computerized Tests: Use computers to present realistic work situations • Police officers will run through various “situations” where they have to decide whether or not to use force, for example • Assessment Centers: Do in-depth evaluations of potential employees; often set up within organizations

7. Psychological Testing (cont.) • Situational Judgment Tests: Present difficult but realistic work situations to potential employees in order to rate and evaluate their performance • In-Basket Test: Simulates decision making challenges that executives face • Basket full of memos is given to applicant, and applicant must act appropriately as quickly as possible • Leaderless Group Discussion: Test of leadership that simulates group decision making and problem solving

8. Management Theories • Scientific Management (Theory X): Approach to managing employees that emphasizes work efficiency • Psychological Efficiency: Maintaining good morale, labor relations, employee satisfaction, and similar aspects of work behavior • Happy workers are productive workers • Theory Y: Emphasizes human relations at work; sees people as industrious, responsible, and interested in challenging work

9. More Management Strategies • Participative Management: Employees at all levels are directly involved in decision making • Management by Objectives: Workers are given specific goals to meet so they can know if they are doing a good job • Self-Managed Team: Group of employees who work together toward shared goals • Quality Circles: Voluntary employee discussion groups that look to improve quality and look for ways to solve business problems

10. Job Satisfaction and Enrichment • Job Satisfaction: Degree to which a person is comfortable and satisfied with his or her work • Job satisfaction is highest when (listed in order of importance): • Work is interesting • Enough help and equipment exist to get job done • Enough information to get job done • Enough authority to get job done • Note that nothing relating to pay is listed in the top four (pay is ranked fifth)! • Job Enrichment: Making a job more personally rewarding, interesting, or intrinsically motivating

11. How People Cope With Work Dilemmas • Four Basic Coping Styles: • Vigilant: Most effective; individuals evaluate information objectively and make decisions clearly understanding alternatives • Complacent: Let chance direct their career decisions and tend to be nonchalant, not making plans • Defensive-Avoidant: Aware of all risks and opportunities, but are uncomfortable making decisions. Thus they tend to procrastinate, rationalize, and make excuses for inaction and indecision • Hypervigilant: Panic when forced to make career decisions. Making logical decisions is almost impossible for this type

12. Environmental Psychology • Concerned with the relationship between environments and human behavior. Interested in: • Physical Environments: Natural or constructed • Social Environments: Groups of people, such as at a dance, party, or business meeting. • Behavioral Settings: Smaller areas within an environment whose use is well defined, e.g., office, casino, classroom, or locker room

13. Territoriality • Territorial Behavior: Any behavior that tends to define a space as one’s own or that protects it from intruders • Territorial Markers: Objects and other signals that indicate ownership or control of a particular area • Gates, pictures, plants, posters, decorations • Check your psychology professor’s office to find some examples of territorial markers

14. Crowding and Noise • Crowding: Subjective feelings of being overstimulated by social inputs or loss of privacy • When crowding causes a loss of control over one’s immediate social environment, stress can result • John Calhoun’s “Horrible Mousery” (1962) is a good example of how overcrowding can affect mice • Attentional Overload: Stressful condition that occurs when sensory stimulation, information, and social contacts make excessive demands on attention

15. Crowding and Noise (cont.) • Noise Pollution: Stressful, annoying, and intrusive noise. Usually generated by machines (jackhammers, sirens, planes) • Architectural Psychology: Study of the effects buildings have on behavior; buildings can be designed using psychological and behavioral principles • Making rooms with more space and more light, having bathrooms in the middle of the hall; higher or lower ceilings • Feng Shui

16. Fig. 20.2 Population growth has slowed slightly in recent years, but world population still threatens to double again in less than 40 years (graph source: Population Institute). Overpopulation and rapid population growth are closely connected with environmental damage, international tensions, and rapid depletion of non-renewable resources. Some demographers predict that if population growth is not limited voluntarily before it reaches 10 billion, it will be limited by widespread food shortages, disease, infant mortality, and early death (Erlich & Erlich, 1990).

17. CNN - Single Child Policy

18. Fig. 20.3 An architectural solution for crowding. Psychologists divided a dorm hall like that shown in the left diagram (a) into two shorter halls separated by unlocked doors and a lounge area (b). This simple change minimized unwanted social contacts and greatly reduced feelings of crowding among dorm residents. (Adapted from Baum & Davis, 1980.)

19. Teaching Styles • Direction Instruction: Factual information presented by lecture, demonstration, and rote practice • Open Teaching: Active student-teacher discussion is emphasized

20. Psychology of Law • Study of behavioral dimensions of legal system • Jury Behavior • Jurors rarely can put aside biases, attitudes, and beliefs when making a decision • Jurors are not very good at separating evidence from other information • Final verdict is often influenced by inadmissible evidence • Jurors cannot suspend judgment until all information is in; opinion often formed early in trial

21. Jury Selection • Mock Jury: Group that realistically simulates a courtroom jury • Scientific Jury Selection: Social science principles are applied to jury selection process • Gather demographic information • Perform community survey to get information about attitudes towards case • Look for authoritarian personality traits in potential jurors • Tend to believe that punishment is effective and more likely to vote to convict • Look at nonverbal behavior • Death-Qualified Jury: Jury composed of people who favor death penalty or are at least indifferent to it

22. CNN – Death Penalty/Prejudice

23. Sports Psychology • Study of behavioral dimensions of sports performance • Task Analysis: Breaking sports skills into subparts so that key elements can be identified and taught • Motor Skills: Series of actions molded into a smooth and efficient performance • Mental Practice: Imagining a skilled performance to help learning • Peak Performance: Physical, emotional, and mental states are harmonious and optimal

24. Effective Communication • State Your Ideas Clearly and Decisively • Do Not Overuse Big Words • Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon or Slang • Avoid Loaded Words: Words that have strong emotional meanings should be avoided • Use People’s Names

25. Being a Good Listener • Make an Honest Effort to Pay Attention • Try to Identify the Speaker’s Purpose: Look for main themes and not isolated facts • Suspend Evaluation • Check Your Understanding • Pay Attention to Nonverbal Messages • Accept Responsibility for Effective Communication

26. Space Psychology: Visions of Arthur C. Clarke? • Space Psychologists: Study behavioral challenges that accompany space flight and life in restricted environments • Some potential problems psychologists have studied • General Environment: How to handle lack of showers, etc. • Privacy • Sensory Restriction

27. More Potential Problems in Space • Cultural Differences • Social Isolation • Conflict Resolution • Mental Health