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Problém osoby

2012 Marek Vácha. Problém osoby.

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Problém osoby

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  1. 2012 Marek Vácha Problém osoby

  2. "...titíž lidé, které mrav, úcta, obyčej, vděk, ještě více vzájemný dohled a žárlivost inter pares drží tak pevně v mezích a kteří na druhé straně prokazují ve vzájemném styku tolik vynalézavosti v taktu, sebeovládání, jemnosti, věrnosti, hrdosti a přátelství, směrem ven, kde začíná cizí, jim cizí, • ...za sebou zanechávají ohavnou řadu vražd a spálenišť, zneuctění a muk snad v podobné povznesenosti a duševní rovnováze, jakoby právě ztropili studentskou taškařici, přesvědčeni, že básníci teď mají zas na dlouho co opěvovat a velebit. • (Nietzsche, F., Genealogie morálky, přel. Věra Koubová, Aurora, Praha, 2002)

  3. Spravedlnost, která není stejná pro všechny, si toto jméno nezasluhuje (Tzvetan Todorov) • co ale znamená "všichni"?

  4. zvířata? pohlaví národnosti (nacismus) bez rozdílu barvy pleti (válka Sever proti Jihu) lidé na stejném území kmen rodina

  5. Genocidy • vždy začaly tím, že jsme se úspěšně pokusili přesvědčit sebe sama že our fellow human beings are less than we are. • "cockroaches" v konfliktu Hutů a Tutsiů • havěť, vši (vermin, lice) • antikristi, ďáblové, nevěřící psi v náboženských konfliktech • ...pak nás žádný etický systém na světě nezastaví

  6. "Proč mě zabíjíte?" • "Bydlíte přece na druhém břehu! Kdybyste bydlel na našem, byl bych vrah, ale protože bydlíte na druhém, jsem hrdina, a tedy i v právu." • "Pěkná spravedlnost, když ji vymezuje řeka!" • (Pascal, Pensées, zl. 291, 294; cit. v Sokol, J., (2010) Etika a život. Vyšehrad, Praha. str. 164)

  7. Na světě jsou dvě velké skupiny lidí. Ta první si myslí, že lze svět rozdělit na dvě velké skupiny lidí. Ta druhá myslí, že ne. • (Thomas Murray, Hastings Cetre, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1y4jt7oDrZI)

  8. Kdo tvoří „lidskou společnost“? • řecká „demokracie“ • jen dospělí svobodní muži • nepatří sem ženy, děti, otroci • dnes např. somálští piráti • odlišují in-group a out-group jinak než my

  9. Green generation • 2005: Na Taiwanu se zdařilo vytvořit zeleně světélkující prasata • Bylo vytvořeno 256 prasečích embryí, do kterých byl vložen gen z medúzy způsobující světélkování • Tato embrya byla vložena do osmi prasnic, u čtyř nastalo těhotenství • Narodila se tři selátka

  10. Green generation • Tato selátka světélkují nejen na povrchu těla, nýbrž i uvnitř: světélkují všechny tělesné orgány • Otázkou jest, zda na etické rovině není něco špatně…?

  11. Animals • virtuallyeverynation has guidelines to alleviate, diminish, or otherwise limit what can be done to animals in biomedical research • it is todaygenerallyaccepted that experimentalanimals have some form of moral status, but it is less clear what warrants this judgement and whether our obligations to these animals also imply that they have rights • (Beauchamp, T.L., Childress, J.F., (2009) Principles of Biomedical Ethics. 6th ed. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, p. 66)

  12. (Nash, R.F., (1989) The Rights of Nature. A History of Environmental Ethics. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, London. p. 5)

  13. The dignity of livingbeings with regard to plants. Moral considerationof plants for their own sakeFederal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) • The general ethical questions arewhether, and why, plants should beprotected. There are two possiblearguments to justify the protection of plants: either that they should beprotected for their own sake, or thatthey should be protected for the sakeof others. That plants should in somecircumstances be protected in theinterest of a third party, e.g. becausethey are useful to humans, is undisputed.Independent of the term dignityof living beings, then, the central questionthereforeremains: whether plantshave an inherent worth, and shouldtherefore be protected for their ownsake.

  14. The dignity of livingbeings with regard to plants. Moral considerationof plants for their own sakeFederal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) • The ECNH’sdiscussiondifferentiated three concepts of value: • Instrumentalvalue: Plants should not be protected for their own sake,but because and as long as they areof benefit to humans (or other organisms),e.g. as crops or as part ofbiodiversity. • Relationalvalue: Plants should not be protected for their own sake, but because someoneconsidersthem to be worthy of protection. Their protection-worthiness is in relation to a value ascribed to thembecause of particular properties. Forexample, a tree may have a particularvalue for an observer, because itwas planted in memory of a personwho has died. An aesthetic value is also a relationalvalue. • Inherent worth: Plants possess inherentworth. This inherentworthmeans they should be protected for their own sake.

  15. The dignity of livingbeings with regard to plants. Moral considerationof plants for their own sakeFederal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) • The great majority of the ECNH membersholds the opinion that prima faciewe do not possess unrestricted powerover plants. We may not use them justas we please, even if the plant communityis not in danger, or if our actionsdo not endanger the species, or if we are not acting arbitrarily.

  16. The dignity of livingbeings with regard to plants. Moral considerationof plants for their own sake. ConclusionsFederal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) • 1. Arbitrariness: The Committeemembersunanimouslyconsider an arbitraryharmcaused to plants to be morally impermissible. This kind of treatmentwould include, e.g. decapitation ofwild flowers at the roadside withoutrational reason. • 2. Instrumentalisation: For the majority the complete instrumentalisationof plants – as a collective,as a species, or as individuals – requires moral justification. • 3. Ownership of plants: For the majority here too, plants– as a collective, as a species, or asindividuals – are excluded for moralreasons from absoluteownership. By this interpretation no one mayhandle plants entirely according tohis/her own desires. A minorityconcludes that no limits apply tohandling plants insofar as they are property. • 4. Genetic modification: According to the majority position,there is nothing to contradict theidea of dignity of living beings inthe genetic modification of plants,as long as their independence, i.e.reproductive ability and adaptive ability are ensured. Social-ethical limits on the genetic modificationof plants may exist, but are not theobject of this discussion. • 6. Diversity: Genetic modification of plantsshould, in the majority opinion, alwaysinvolveconsideration of conserving and safeguarding the natural, i.e. not man-made, network ofrelationships. • 7. Proportionality: A majority considers any actionwith or towards plants that servesthe self-preservation of humans tobe morally justified, as long as it isappropriate and follows the principle of precaution.

  17. Všeobecná deklarace lidských právOSN: New York 1948 • Článek 2Každý má všechna práva a všechny svobody, stanovené touto deklarací, bez jakéhokoli rozlišování, zejména podle rasy, barvy, pohlaví, jazyka, náboženství, politického nebo jiného smýšlení, národnostního nebo sociálního původu, majetku, rodu nebo jiného postavení. Žádný rozdíl nebude dále činěn z důvodu politického, právního nebo mezinárodního postavení země nebo území, k nimž určitá osoba přísluší, ať jde o zemi nebo území nezávislé nebo pod poručenstvím, nesamosprávné nebo podrobené jakémukoli jinému omezení suverenity.

  18. What is a person…? • human eggs? • embryos or fetuses? • newborns? • anencephalic babies? • the brain dead? • nonhuman animals? • cybrids? • enemies in war • different races • women and children

  19. What is a person…? • human eggs? • embryos or fetuses? • newborns? • anencephalic babies? • the brain dead? • nonhuman animals? • cybrids? • and if not, what elevates the autonomous human above members of the groups just listed?

  20. What is a person…? • A common, but controversial, presumption in medicine and biomedical ethics is that • some groups have no moral rights (e.g. animals used in biomedical research) and that • other groups have fewer or weaker rights (e.g. humans who have been judged incompetent have diminished, if any, rights to decide for themselves) • (Beauchamp, T.L., Childress, J.F., (2009) Principles of Biomedical Ethics. 6th ed. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, p. 65)

  21. A Theory Based on • biological species • cognitive capacity • moral agency • sentience • communal relationship

  22. empirický funkcionalismus

  23. Empirický funkcionalismus a personhood begins some time later than conception and can be lost (f.e. in the extreme stages of dementia or in a persistent vegetative state) well before the physical death of the individual

  24. A Theory based on CognitiveProperties • Osoba je dána: • self-consciousness • freedom to act and capacity to engage in purposeful actions • vždyť přece podle této kapacity někoho prohlásíme za nesvéprávného • ability to give and to appreciatereasons for acting • a proto zvířata osobami nejsou • capacity to communicate with other personsusing a language • rationality and higher ordervolition

  25. A Theory based on CognitivePropertieskritika • pokud zavedeme toto pětibodové kritérium, pak zcela jistě osobou nejsou • malé děti • těžce mentálně postižení • senilní staří lidé • why do cognitive properties of individuals determine anything at all about their moral status?

  26. Další teorie:A Theory Based on Moral Agency • osobou je každý kdo • is capable of making moral judgments about the rightness or wrongness of actions • has the motives that can be judged morally • = capacity for moral agency gives an individual moral respect and dignity

  27. Další teorie:A Theory Based on Moral Agencykritika • osobou by pak nebyl: • many psychopaths • patients with severe brain damage • patients with advanced dementia

  28. A Theory Based on Sentience • osobou je každá, kdo vnímá bolest a slast • having the capacity of sentience is a sufficient condition of moral status • pain is an evil, pleasure a good • to cause pain to any entity is to harm it • even if you were not cognitively capable, morally capable, or biologically human, pain and suffering would be real to you

  29. A Theory Based on Sentience • in this theory a fetus does have moral status at some point after several weeks of development, and thus abortions at that point would be prima facie impermissible • this point is prior to the stage of development at which some legal abortions now occur.

  30. A Theory Based on Sentiencekritika • anyindividuallacking the capacity for sentiencelacks moral status • this theory disallows moral status for early-stagedfetuses as well as for all who have irreversiblylost the capacity for sentience, such as patients with severe brain damage • the degree of moral status and the level of moral protection can vary according to conditions such as the quality, richness, or complexity of life • as loss of capacityoccurs, humans (and nonhumans) will have a decreased moral status • In this way, the most vulnerable beings can become the most vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. No theory is morally acceptable that yields this conditions

  31. A Theory Based on Relationships • relationshipsbetweenpartiesaccount for moral status • the less the degree to which the fetus can be said to be part of a social matrix, the weaker the argument for regarding her/him as having the same moral status as persons • oncefetuses are detected in utero by stethoscope or sonogram, they become in significantrespects part of a social matrix

  32. A Theory Based on Relationshipskritika • is it true, that only socialbonds and attitudesalonedetermine moral status? • the differentdegrees of moral status, such as moral agents having a higher degree of status than individualslacking such agency • no matter how much we love a favorite plant or institution, neither the plant nor the institution gains status by virtue of this relationship

  33. A Theory Based on Human Properties • All humans have full moral status and only humans have that status • an individual has moral status if and only if that inidividual • is conceived by human parents, or • is an organism with a human genetic code • to be a living member of the species Homo sapiens sapiens is a necessary and sufficient condition of moral respect

  34. Peter Singer • rozlišuje mezi „human being“ a „human person“ • osoba je bytost schopná vnímat libosti a nelibosti • pacient v PVS nebo lidské embryo osobou není, živý pes ano

  35. Peter Singer

  36. Peter Singer • creaturesincluded in Singer´s moral community has to possesnervoussystems of sufficientsophistication to feel pain • ethics ceases to applysomewhere „between a shrimp and oyster.“ • ethics ends at „the boundary of sentience.“ • the fact that a deer does not think like a person was no more relevant in the assignation of rights than the advanced quality of Einstein´s thoughtcompared to an average person´s.

  37. "We protest his hiring because Dr. Singer denies the intrinsic moral worth of an entire class of human beings - newborn children - and promotes policies that would deprive many infants with disabilities of their basic human right to legal protection against homicide." ... Princeton University student petition protesting Peter Singer's hiring. Peter Singer

  38. Joseph Fletcher: "postnatal abortion"

  39. Peter Singer • pokud nastavíme morální rámec tak, aby se nám do něj vešli všichni lidé, vejde se sem i řada zvířat • pokud nastavíme morální status tak, aby se do něj zvířata nevešla, nevejde se sem i řada lidí (děti před narozením, lidé v PVS atd.)

  40. Empirický funkcionalismus

  41. Empirický funkcionalismus „person“

  42. Empirický funkcionalismus

  43. ethics ceases to apply somewhere „between a shrimp and oyster.“ Peter Singer „person“ osoba = to, co vnímá libosti a nelibosti

  44. otázka zde ovšem jistě bude zda • zacházet s člověkem jako se zvířetem • zacházet se zvířetem jako s člověkem (Chardin, Bochenski)

  45. Nacismus

  46. Tato osoba trpí dědičným defektem a během jejího života na ní společnost vynaloží 60 000 říšských marek. Přátelé Němci, jsou to i vaše peníze.

  47. Empirický funkcionalismus • Osoba již není definována jako individuum určitého druhu, ale spíše jako subjekt zkušenosti, jako myslící, volící, bolest a slats vnímající bytost vědomá si své totožnosti v průběhu času. Podobné definice osoby nalezneme rovněž v bioetických diskusích, v nichž se často prostě jen předpokládá, že určitá psychologická kontinuita (např. paměti) či určitá mentální vlastnost (např. schopnost zakoušet bolest) definují lidskou osobu. • (Černý, D., Jurigová, M., Lidské embryo v perspektivě bioetiky. str. 75 in Černý, D., a kol. (2011) Lidské embryo v perspektivě bioetiky.Wolters Kluwer ČR, a.s., Praha.)

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