Introduction

1. Introduction Grammatical Hierarchy

2. Definition of GRAMMAR GRAMMAR: • the structural system of a language. • the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics) Linguistics Syntax Morphology Grammar Semantics

3. Five Ranks • The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence the clause the phrasethe word the morpheme

4. Diagram of the five ranks: Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank: Sentence lowest Clause Phrase Word highest Morpheme

5. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes. Sentence Clause Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Prepositional Phrase Determiner Noun Auxiliary Adverb Main Verb Preposition Determiner Noun Theseundergraduatesarerapidlyimprovingintheirwriting.

6. 0.1 Morphemes 1.Definition: • the minimum or smallest grammatical unit • the smallest meaningful element of speech. 2.Classification: Two categories: Free MorphemesBound Morphemes.

7. 1) Free Morphemes 1.Definition: • has a complete meaning • can stand by itself as a Simple Word • can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech • Can form Compound Words • Can form Derivatives

8. 2) Bound Morphemes • are mostly affixes • also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form • cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an Inflectional or Derivational Affix.

9. Inflectional Affix • -’s(genitive case) • -s/-es(plural nouns) • -s/-es(the third person singular verbs in simple present) • -ed(past tense verbs) • -ing, -ed(-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs) • -er, -est(comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs)

10. Derivational Affix • Prefix, Suffix • (Prefix) + Root + (suffix) • co-exist existence co-existence

11. Free M ＋ Affix Derivative Free morpheme Free M ＋ Free M Compound word Morpheme -’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en-est, -er, -s,-es Inflectional Affix Bound morpheme Affix Prefix Derivational Affix ＋ Root Suffix

12. 3) Allomorphs Definition: • The variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs. Explanation: • the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms.

13. Examples: In Orthography: • in- im- il- ir- • inactive immature illegal irrational • incoherent immortal illogical irregular • inexperienced imperfect illegible irrelevant In phonology: -s cats dogs houses

14. 0.2 Words • is composed of one or more than one morpheme. • can be classified in two ways: • in terms of word-formation grammatical function

15. In terms of Word-formation a) Simple Word b) Derivative c) Compound Word

16. a) Simple Word: also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme) • minor but has frequent appearance and strong derivational ability • the main body of English vocabulary • usually the small word • at on down near hand foot take make

17. b) Derivative: Structure: (prefix) + root +(suffix) : unkindness PrefixInfluence the meaning of the root SuffixInfluence the part of speech of the root Exceptions: 1. be-, en-/em, a- Influence the part of speech befriend, enable, empower, asleep 2. Some suffixes only change the meaning Friendship, booklet, idealism

18. c) Compound Word Structure: Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme Classification: • Compound NounCompound AdjectiveCompound VerbCompound AdverbCompound PronounCompound ConjunctionCompound Preposition

19. In terms of grammatical function • Closed-class words Open-class words.

20. Closed-class words • Definition: Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are closed or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members.

21. Scope: All the Function Words: PrepositionPronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliary

22. Open-class Words Definition: Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones.

23. Scope: All the Content Words: NounAdjectiveAdverbMain Verb NOTE: Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and Interjection are between closed and open

24. 0.3 Phrases Definition: • is composed of one or more than one word. • is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key Word as its Head. • The word class of the Head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

25. Word Class of Phrase : NounPhraseVerbPhraseAdjectivePhraseAdverbPhrasePrepositionalPhrase

26. 1) The Noun Phrase: • Structure: (Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier) • all the college students Noun as the Pre-Modifier Determiner Noun as the Head Determiner

27. Prepositional Phrase Post-Modifier • His new book on phonology • Milton lived in the 17th century. • The author’s new novel that will soon come out Non-finite Verb Phrase Clause

28. 2) The Verb Phrase: Simple Verb PhraseComplex Verb Phrase In terms of the amount of verbs Finite Verb PhraseNon-finite Verb Phrase In terms ofgrammatical form

29. Simple Verb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier) • She looks pale. • We utterly detested him.

30. Complex Verb Phrase: Structure: Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier) • It is getting dark • She ought to have told him about it. • Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.

31. Finite Verb Phrase: A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to Tense or Subject. PersonNumber NumberPerson Tense I loved you. Love  loved Tommy loves Lora. Love  loves The girls lovefairy tales. Love  love

32. Non-finite Verb Phrase: A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that doesnot change according to Tense or Subject. We went there to see a film. Robert seldom goes there to see a film. Finite Non-finite Andrew will go there to see a film. I usually go there to see a film.

33. Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases: • Having seen the film, we had a discussion. • Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is invaluable. • Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk. • Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she began to read.

34. 3) The Adjective Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier / Complementation) • The course is pretty difficult. • I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if you show me what’s wrong.

35. 4) The Adverb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier) • He spoke loudly and clearly.

36. 5) The Prepositional Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation • The weather has been fine except in the north. • Now their footsteps could be heard directly above my head. • We are collecting money for the benefit of some orphans.

37. 0.4 Clauses: • is composed of one or more than one phrase. • A full-fledged clause is structurallya sequence of phrase and logically a construction of “Subject + Predicate”.

38. The producersare able to supplya small part of our needs. • NP VP NP • Subject Verb Object • Subject Predicate • Clause • Sentence

39. Classification: 1) In terms of grammatical function: Independent clause (IC)Dependent clause (DC) stand by itselfact as a complete utterance forms only part of another clause or phrase He knows everything about it. I don’t think he knows everything about it.

40. Quiz: • I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread. • I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread. • I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread. • I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread. • When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread. • I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store. IC. IC. IC; IC. IC, IC. IC; IC. DC, IC. IC DC.

41. 2) Simple and Complex Clauses In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction: Simple ClauseComplex Clause only oneconstruction of “subject + predicate” comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements

42. Examples: It is not true. What you said is not true. He said that it was not true. He complained that what you said was not true. Simple Independent Complex Independent Simple Dependent Complex Dependent

43. 3) Main and Subordinate Clauses • In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.

44. Example: Main Clause Subordinate Clause He complainedthat what you said was not true. Subordinate Clause Main Clause

45. 4) Finite and Non-finite Clauses • In terms of verb phrase type: • Finite Clause:Non-finite Clause: takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator I signed the paper toget the license. (Non-finite clause) It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause)

46. Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite? Finite Nonfinite Finite Finite Nonfinite

47. 5) Verbless clauses • is marked by the absence of any form of verb element • is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element. • Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned. • Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.

48. 0.5 Sentences Features: • the highest rank of grammatical unit. • the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse • Based on one or more than one clause • can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Definition: a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

49. 1) Full and Minor Sentences • A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. • Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses. • A: When did he arrive? B: Last night.No smoking!Fire!

50. A Full Sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. • This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing.