Sentence and Phrase Structure in Turkish

1. Sentencestructureandphrasestructure

2. aim • How do we define sentencesandclauses? • Whataresubjectsandpredicates? • What is a phrase? • Whattypes of phrasesarethere in Turkish? • Whatarephrasestructurerules? • How arethefollowingtypes of phrasesorganised? • NP • PP • AP • ADVP andadverbials • VP

3. Sentencesandclauses

4. Intraditionalgrammar, Sentence is thecompleteexpression of onethought. BUT Kaya parçası = onethought, not a sentence Dün seninle sinemaya gitmek için geldim = onesentence, twothoughts THEN Considersentences in terms of clauses. Clausesarethesyntacticunitsthathave a subjectand a predicate. Sentence= oneormoreclausesduetotheirrecursiveproperties. Seni görmeye geldim = sentencewithtwoclauses

5. Immediateconstituents of clauses: subjectsandpredicates • [Ahmet] [sessizce uyudu] • [semra] [açık havada dolaştı] • [sarı saçlı kız] [okulu bitirdi]

6. Substitution test forconsistencykim ne yaptı? • Constituent B is thesubject of thesentence • Constituent C is thepredicate of thesentence • Predication: therelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate • Allsentencesconsist of a subjectand a predicate • A predicate is whatremains in a sentenceafterthesubject is excluded. • Subjectsandpredicatesarealsosisterslikecomplementsandheads.

7. subjects • A simplesubject is usually a NP • Subjects in Turkishareusuallytheinitial NP in a sentencewith a tensedverb. • Ünlü şarkıcı deniz kenarındaki lokantada balık yedi • Dün satın aldığım kitap çok pahalıydı • PronounsarealsoNPs • Ben, siz, o, onlar, bu, şu, etc

8. Thepro-dropparameter(thesubjpronoun can be dropped, or not) • Turkish can havenullsubjects (pro-droplanguage) • languagessuch as English and French dontallownullsubjects (non- prodroplanguages) • Küçük bebek sincabı gördü - NP • O sincabı gördü - Pronoun • Sincabı gördü – nullsubject Differentdiscoursefunctions: • Introduce a newpersonintotheconversation • Showsthebaby has beenmentionedpreviously • Providesthetopiccontinuity

9. It is strangetouseovertsubjectswhenthespeakercontinuesto talk aboutthesameentity • Murat eve geldi, #Murat yemek pişirdi, # o yemek yedi, # O kitap okudu • Nullsubjectsarealsoconsideredto be NPs. Evenifthesubject is empty, thesentencestill has a subject-predicateconstituentstructure. Thenullsubject is representedwithpro (an emptypronpun)

10. Subject-verbagreement in sentences • Turkishverbshaveagreementsuffixes: numberandperson. • Number can be singularorplural • Person can be first, secondandthirdperson. • Ben çok çalışırım (firstpersonsingular) • Siz çok çalışırsınız (secondpersonplural)

11. predicates • Typicallyconstituentsthatfollowsubjects in sentences. • Express theactioncarriedbythesubject(arkadaşım yüzdü) • Providedescription of thesubject (Ahmet yakışıklı bir subaydır) • Show whathappenedtothesubject(adam yere düştü) • Express a psychologicalstateexperiencedbythesubject(Ahmet sevindi) • Almostuniversallypredicatescontainverbs, theymaycontainotherconstiuentssuch as direct/indirectobjectsandadverbs.

12. Phrasesandphrasestructurerules

13. Phrasesaretheconstituentswhichfunction as subjects, objects, etc in a sentence. • A phrasemayconsist of oneormoreconstituentswith a syntacticsignificance. • Therearedifferenttypes of phrases in languagessuch as NP, VP, ADJP, ADVP, PP • Thecategory of theheaddeterminesthecategory of thephrase. NP – head N VP – head V

14. Simple subjectsareusuallyNPsandpredicatesareVPs since predicateshaveverbs as theircentral element.

15. Phrasestructurerule • Phrasesarerule-governedconstituents. • Phrasestructurerulesareintendedto model mentalrepresentations of possiblephrases in a language. • S -> NP VP • Human beingsstore a limitednumber of rulestoproduceinfinitenumber of phrasesandsentences.

16. Headparameter • Headdirectionality: thedirection of theheaddiffersfromonelanguagetoanother. • Turkish is a head final languagewhile English is headinitial. • Dün satın aldığım kitap – NP- headkitap • Thebookthat I boughtyesterday – NP- headbook • Kitap okumak – VP- headokumak • Read thebook – VP- headread • Makas ile – PP – headile • Withscissors – PP- headwith

17. Nounphrases (NPs)

18. NPsmostlyfunction as subjectsandobjects in sentences • A NP can consist of a singleword, a nounor a pronounormorethanoneword. • Thehead of a NP is almostalwaysinflectedforcase, ie. Nominative, accusative, genitive, possessive, etc. • Ünlü şarkıcı deniz kenarındaki lokantada balık yedi • İki akıllı kız marul salatası yediler • Dün satın aldığım kitap çok pahalıydı Furtherexamples: • Filler, ev, boya, etc- commonNs • İstanbul, Mersin, Aslı, etc- properNs • Kırmızı kitap, en başarılı sanatçı, etc – modifiedby ADJP • Gelen adam, yeni aldığım kitap- consisting of Rel. Cl. • Demir kapı, deri koltuk, etc – attributiveNs • Ben, sen, o, bu, şu, etc - pronouns

19. Pronouns can alsostandforNPs • Benim kitabım, Canın kalemi, Onların evleri, bir ev, iki kardeş, bütün yollar, etc • TheaboveNPsconsist of determiners. Determinersarefunctionwords, whosefunctionsaretodeterminethereferentialandquantificationalproperties of nouns. • Quantificationaldeterminers: bazı, birkaç, her, bütün, etc • Referentialdeterminers: bu, şu, o, bunlar, benim, senin, etc.

20. Turkishdoes not have a definitearticle but an indefinitearticle «bir», which is also a determiner • Bir has twodifferentmeanings: 1. showsthenumber, 2. functions as a determiner • Bir güzel genç kız, iki güzel genç kız, etc • Güzel bir genç kız, ?güzel iki genç kız • A quantificationaldeterminerandtheindefinitearticlecannotoccur in thesame NP. 3. * benim her akıllı bir öğrencim

21. Tosumup, a NP in Turkishmayconsist of thefollowingtypes of constituents: • Thehead (obligatorybydefinition) • Oneormoreadjectivephrases • An attributivenoun • Oneormorerelativeclauses • Oneormoredeterminers Thephrasestructurerule of NP in Turkish: • NP > (referentialdet.) (rel.cl) (quantificationaldet.) (adj) (indefinitearticle) (noun) Noun • [Det Ali’nin [RL dün yıkattığım] [ADJP güzel] [Head halısı]

22. İyi bir konser salonu bulduk • * iyi bir konser bulduk salonu • Phrasesaredeterminedaccordingtotheirfunctionandposition in a sentence.

23. Postpositionalphrases

24. Adpositionsarewordclassesthatexpress a relationshipbetweentwoentitiessuch as place, time, locationetc. • Prepositions = adposition + NP (like in English) • Postposition = NP + adposition (like in Turkish) • SomeTurkishpostpositionssuch as ile can becomeclitics (Nerminle) Postpositionshavecomplementsthatcompletethem: • NP+gibi : bütün arkadaşları gibi • * gibi çalışıyor • Postpositions, likeverbs, assigncasetotheircomplements(Table, pp 198-199)

25. PP > NP P • PP > (Adv) NP P

26. Adjectivephrases

27. It is difficulttodraw a linebetweenadjectivesandnouns in Turkish (as adjstakescaseandpluralendings as nouns) • Kız (N)- kızlar, genç (ADJ)-gençler, kıza, gence, etc • *daha kız, en kız (Ns not allowed in comparative, superlatives) • Daha genç, en genç (table, pp 201) • Kırmızı kitap (attributiveadjective) • Kitap kırmızıdır (predicativeadjective) Adjectives as a head at final • Çok güzel, en kolay, yakın

28. Adjswith NP complements • [gitmeye gönüllü] • *[gönüllü] • Ahmet [annesine çok düşkün] • * Ahmet [düşkün] SomeADJPsrequire PP complements • [ADJP [PP Cana karşı] duyarlı] • [ADJP [PP seninle] mutlu] • ADJP > (NP/PP) (Degree ADV) adj.

29. Adverbıalphrases

31. ADV P → (Adv.) Adv • Adjuncts: Show time/ place/ manner/ instrument • Disjuncts: Feelings/ opinion of thespeaker & modality: İnşallah, Ne yazık ki… , Keşke • Conjunctions: Link sentences: Ama, Sonuçta…

32. Verbphrases