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Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs

Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Introduction. Understanding the place of technology in our lives and in our society. Examples from three technological advances: The safety bicycle Bakelite plastic Fluorescent bulbs

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Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs

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  1. Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  2. Introduction • Understanding the place of technology in our lives and in our society. • Examples from three technological advances: • The safety bicycle • Bakelite plastic • Fluorescent bulbs • Technology and society are human constructs Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  3. Bijker (beé-ker) • Dutch engineering student in the 1970s • Drawn to Science Technology Society movement (STS) • Risks of nuclear energy • Environmental degradation • Followed Social Construction of Technology apprach (SCOT) Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  4. Classification, bad • Tried to dissolve STS boundaries • Seamless web • Abhorred linear thinking Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  5. A vague diagram Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  6. Summary • Technological inventions are created within society; cannot be viewed distinctly • Gives three concrete stories and ties them in to their societal frameworks • Keywords: • Relevant Social Group • Interpretive Flexibility: Closure/Stabilization • Technological Frame • Power Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  7. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  8. Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Early 19th century, Baron von Drais’ draisenne Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  9. Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Early 19th century, Baron von Drais’ draisienne Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  10. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  11. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  12. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  13. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  14. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  15. Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Relevant user group – are the social groups centered around the technology, in this case, the Ordinary bicycle. • Users: Young men of means and nerve • Non-users: Everybody else • Manufacturers: industrialized machine industries de-stabilized by Franco-German war Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  16. Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Interpretive flexibility – the definition of the artifact according to the relevant user group • For young men of means and nerve – it is a working technology, slightly dangerous, but that was, partly, the point. • For everybody else – it is a non-working technology. It was unsafe. • For manufacturers – how do you develop it for wider use? Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  17. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  18. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  19. Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  20. “The Fourth Kingdom” The Social Construction of Bakelite Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  21. Baekeland Lone inventor? Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  22. Two New Concepts • Technological Frame • Degree of Inclusion But first, some background to the story of Bakelite… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  23. What is Bakelite? • Trademark for a molding material patented by Baekeland in 1907 • Formed in condensation reaction that occurs when phenol and formaldehyde are combined • Insoluble, infusible, and unaffected by other chemicals • First truly synthetic plastic • Moldable but hardens Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  24. Precursors to Bakelite and Relevant Social Groups • Old “Plastics” • Resin, horn, tortoiseshells, ivory, etc. (luxury market) • New Plastics Made from Natural Materials • Rubber – useful but ugly • Celluloid – useful but flammable • Search for Synthetic Plastics • Concern about scarcity of natural resources • Precursors created demand for consumer products (emergence of new social group) • Phenol-formaldehyde experiments Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  25. Discovery of Bakelite • Turn-of-the-Century • Phenol-formaldehyde research in disarray • Baekeland tries to find patterns in chaos • Applies for patent for product he calls Bakelite: • Product A: Liquid • Product B: Elastic • Product C: Hard yet gummy • Product D: Hard and insoluble • Laboratory notes show he was interested in commercial applications Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  26. “Technological Frame” • Each relevant social group has own Technological Frame • Builds when relevant social groups interact around an artifact • Provides the goals, ideas and tools needed for action (solving problems) • Outcome is constrained by the social group, but outcome is not predetermined. • Also applies to non-technical groups such as consumers, managers, politicians, etc. Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  27. “Degree of Inclusion” • As actors can be members of more than one relevant social group, they can also be influenced by more than one technological frame • “Degree of inclusion” in a technological frame depends on extent to which an actor’s interactions are structured by that frame • Bijker: Innovation often comes from inclusion in more than one technological frame Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  28. Baekeland’s Inclusion in Technological Frames • Photochemist • Experience as photochemist (inventor of photographic paper) led him to attempt to map all possible variables of the phenol-formaldehyde reaction • Electrochemist • Interested in producing raw materials for industry (not consumer products) • Businessman • Interested in whether processes can be scaled up Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  29. Early Contacts with Industry Museums The Social Construction of Bakelite Consumers Patent Litigation Industrial Designers Collaboration with Industry World War I Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  30. The social construction of fluorescent lighting The majesty of daylight Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  31. Overview • Lightbulbs invented in 1880 by Edison • This chapter focuses on 1938-1940s • Interplay between INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT & CONSUMERS • Engineers had devised fluorescent lighting long before the socially constructed final product appeared Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  32. Key players • 1890s • MAZDA LIGHTING • Comprised GE and Westinghouse • UTILITIES • FIXTURE MANUFACTURERS • PUBLIC • GOVERNMENT Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  33. Consolidation • 1901 • GE, Westinghouse, Others • Others consolidate into National Electric Lamp Company. • GE provided capital by purchasing 75% of stock • GE owns 97% of U.S. electric lighting market Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  34. GENERAL ELECTRIC:Antitrust/Mergers/Cross-licensing Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  35. Utility companies • Private companies, collective organizaton • Organized as licensees of Mazda • Dependencies • “Understandings” • Utilities promoted Mazda lamps • Mazda promoted higher consumption Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  36. Fixture companies • No electric co. made accessories • RLM Standards Institute • Established industry standards • Favored Mazda • (who happened to collaborate in the standardization) Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  37. 1930s • Despite Great Depression—belief in technology • Technology was the buzzword • Object, process, knowledge, symbol • Electricity—Symbol! • Sense of wonder Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  38. World’s Fair 1939 • http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/DISPLAY/39wf/front.htm • Utopian • Introduced new technologies, including fluorescent lighting—an opportunity! Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  39. From tint to daylight • Originally for tint lighting—specialty • High-efficiency daylight fluorescent • “3 to 200 times as much light for the same wattage” • “Amazing efficiency” • “Most economical” • “Indoor daylight at last.” Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  40. Uh-oh: Relevant Social Groups • Utilities feared lost revenues • Tried to emphasize the “tinted” aspect • Even Mazda was concerned • How long would this bulb last? • Independents • Hygrade-Sylvania • Public • Fixture Makers Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  41. Nela Park Conference • April 24-25, 1939 in Cleveland • “Fluorescent Council of War” • Create High-Intensity Daylight Lamp • Nix High-Efficiency Lamp Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  42. GE vs. the Govt. • GE’s power continues through WWII • 2 lawsuits involving GE were dismissed because they “interfered with the war effort” • Military was using fluorescent bulbs Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  43. POWER • Transitive capacity to harness the agency of others to comply with one’s ends. • Is exercised, not possessed • Previously— • Economists would talk of technology without mentioning social power • Sociologist would not discuss technological power. Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  44. Semiotic power • Reaching closure, where interpretive flexibility is reduced, is the first step of semiotic power. • Which means: • More people in a relevant social group • New relevant social groups • Elaborating the meaning of artifacts Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

  45. Constraints & Enablers • Stabilization results in fixity of meaning • Fixity of meaning represents power. • Shapes technological frames which specify actions of relevant social group members • Constrain actions (no high-efficiency bulbs) • Enable actions: routines, patents • Removes controversy from history • GE ads for high-intensity Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski

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