Modern Forces: Science, Anxiety & Irrationality

1. Chapter 24 An Age of Modernity and Anxiety, 1894 - 1914

2. Toward the Modern Consciousness: Developments in the Sciences • European Intellectual Community • Prior to WWI – prominent thinkers had a sense of confusion and anxiety about an impending catastrophe • Brought on by the growth of nationalism and technology • The Certainty of Science • Based on ideas from the Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment • Late 19th century - scientists questioned established scientific theories • Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906) • Marie won Nobel Prizes in physics & chemistry • Discovered radiation (Marie ironically died from leukemia) • Atoms – small worlds with protons & electrons • Their experiments spawned a new theme in physics that studied the disintegrative processes within atoms

3. Possible Test Question • Just prior to World War I, the European intellectual community was marked by • Boundless enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism about the future. • A sense of confusion and anxiety leading to feelings of imminent catastrophe. • Total complacency on the part of a self-satisfied mass public. • Grim determination among nationalists to adopt and enforce international peace treaties. • A retreat into scientific materialism.

4. Max Planck (1858-1947) • Energy radiated discontinuously (irregular packets of quanta) • Formation of quantum theory • Raised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom & the building blocks of the material world • New physicists began to challenge and ultimately invalidate some of the work of Newton • Albert Einstein (1879-1955) • Theory of relativity – space & time are not absolute • Four dimensional space-time continuum • Energy of the atom

5. Possible Test Question • The quantum theory of energy developed by Max Planck raised fundamental questions about the • Structure of stars. • Accepted medieval theories of chemical reaction. • Subatomic realm of the atom and the basic building blocks of the material world. • Safe transmission of electrical energy for powering modern economies. • The electro-dynamics of moving bodies.

6. Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational • Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) • Glorifies the irrational • Claimed humans at the whim of irrational life forces • “God is dead” • Critique of Christianity • Felt Christianity weakened Western creativity • Concept of the superman • Superior intellectuals must rise up and lead the masses • Rejected democracy, social reform, & universal suffrage • Henri Bergson (1859 – 1941) • French philosopher who accepted rational thought but thought it was incapable of arriving at truth. • Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922) • Advocated revolutionary socialism through violence

7. Possible Test Question • Friedrich Nietzsche • Supported the Theory of Relativity. • Felt reform was needed in a healthy Catholic Church. • Believed that Christianity had deeply undermined the creative power of western civilization. • Was an advocate of Darwin’s theories. • Was a major influence on Freud and the latter’s theories of psychoanalysis.

8. Sigmund Freud & Psychoanalysis • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900 • Foundation of psychoanalysis • The Unconscious • Human behavior was influenced by the unconscious and by inner desires • Id, Ego, and Superego • Id – center of unconscious (pleasure principle) • Ego – reason, coordinator of life (reality principle) • Superego – moral values of society • The superego served to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id. • Dreams were the repression of unconscious desires • Oedipus Complex for men (Electra for women) • Desire for the parent of the opposite sex

9. Possible Test Question • According to Sigmund Freud, behavior was • Largely determined by genetics. • Shaped by one’s environment. • Determined by one’s unconscious and by inner drives of which people were generally unaware. • Shaped by one’s socio-economic status as Marx had argued. • Always predictable because of a “will to power.”

10. Social Darwinism and Racism • Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) • British philosopher who applied Darwin’s ideas to society • Societies are organisms that evolve through time by struggling with their environment. • Progress came from the “struggle for survival” • Nationalism and Racism • Friedrich von Bernhardi (German general) • Thought war was necessary for culture • Evolutionary role “survival of the fittest” • Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927) • The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1890 • Claimed Aryans were the creators of Western culture • Modern day Germans were the pure successors of “Aryans” • Aryan must be prepared to fight for Western Civilization

11. Possible Test Question • Social Darwinism was • Applying the ideas of Darwin to society. • An effort to explain the problems of society by psychological means. • An explanation, sociologically, of Darwin’s biological ideas. • Advocated by Nietzsche. • Condemned by Freud.

12. Possible Test Question • According to Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the Aryans were • The degenerates of Western Civilization exemplifying the vicious German combination of social Darwinism, nationalism, and racism. • Conquerors of India. • The “fit” who would “survive” Darwin’s world of devolution. • A fictitious people who were destined to rule the Slavic people of the east. • The real creators of western culture.

13. The Attack on Christianity • Challenges to Established Churches • Scientific inquiry • Modernization – migration to the city weakened the base of the church set in village cultures • New political movements – governments reestablished ties with the churches after 1848 Revolutions • Anticlericalism – backlash against union of church & state after 1848 revolutions • Biblical higher criticism • Ernst Renan wrote Life of Jesus • Questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible • Denied the divinity of Jesus

14. Response of the Churches • Rejection: Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors • Rigid stand against nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, & freedom of speech & press • Adaptation: modernism • New view on the Bible as a book of moral ideas • Encouraged Christians to get involved in social reform • Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907 • Compromise: Pope Leo XIII • Permitted the teaching of evolution as a theory • De Rerum Novarum (1891) • Asserted that socialism was Christian principle • upheld right to private property • condemned evils of capitalism • urged followers to join unions & social reform groups (attempt to reconnect with the working class)

15. Possible Test Question • In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum (1891), Pope Leo XIII • Endorsed Marxist conceptions of materialism. • Asserted that much in socialism was Christian in principle. • Ordered Catholics to turn away from all forms of political activity. • Began to question the necessity of the sacraments. • Condemned “modernism” in all its manifestations.

16. Naturalism & Symbolism in Literature • Naturalism • Artistic movement that was a continuation of realism but more pessimistic • Émile Zola (1840 – 1902) – used Darwin’s ideas to set his stories against the backdrop of urban slums & coalfields • Themes of alcoholism & depression • Best example of naturalistic literature • “I have simply done on living bodies the work of analysis which surgeons perform on corpses.” • Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910) • War and Peace – set in the time of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia • Realistic portrayal of military life & human character • Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821 – 1881) • Maintained that the major problem was the loss of spiritual belief • Used psychology & moral observation to examine human nature • Crime & Punishment & The Brothers Karamazov • Symbolism • Objective knowledge of the world was impossible • Art should function for its own sake not society

17. Possible Test Question • The greatest difference between naturalism and realism in literature was • Realism dealt more with themes like human suffering. • Naturalism was more popular than realism. • In general, naturalism was more pessimistic than realism. • Realism was simply a continuation of naturalism. • In general, realism was more pessimistic than naturalism.

18. Modernism in the Arts • Impressionism • Use of light and color • Left the studio & went out to paint what they saw • Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) • Beginning of impressionist art • Urged artists to paint nature, people and their surroundings • Capture light, running water, emotion • Berthe Morisot (1841-1895) • Female artist who used lighter colors and flowing brush strokes • Post-Impressionism • Kept the Light and color of impression and combined it with structure and form • Shifted from objective reality to subjective reality • Viewed as the beginning of modern art • Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) – Woman with Coffee Pot • Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) Starry Night

19. Monet - Impression, Sunrise

20. Morisot – Young Girl by the Window

21. Van Gogh’s Starry Night

22. Possible Test Question • In art, modernism found its beginnings in the work of Pissarro called • Surrealism. • Abstract Realism. • Baroque. • Expressionism. • Impressionism.

23. The Search for Individual Expression • Photography • Cubism: Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Les Demoiselles d’Avignon • Use of geometric designs to re-create reality • Abstract Expressionism: Vasily Kandinsky (1866-1944) Abstract painting • Modernism in Music • Included: • Attraction to the exotic, nationalist themes, folk music and the lure of the primitive • Edvard Grieg (1843 – 1907) • Scandinavian composer who used folk music to present nationalist themes • Claude Debussy (1862 – 1918) • Impressionist musician who used music to evoke the emotion of poetry • Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) Rites of Spring • Classic example of modernism in music • Use of pulsating rhythm, sharp dissonances, and sensual dancing caused a riot at its debut in Paris • Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929) • Russian ballet director who worked with Stravinsky

24. Picasso - Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

25. Kandinsky – Composition VIII

26. Possible Test Question • At its premier, Igor Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, now considered as a classic example of modernism in music and ballet, • Drew great public acclaim as a modern masterwork. • Inspired many authors to write poems using the music. • Caused a great riot at the theater by the audience because of its sharp dissonance, and blatant sensuality. • Restored audiences’ faith in music as a rational and soothing art. • Was ignored when first performed and only became recognized as a classic several decades later.

27. Politics: New Directions and New Uncertainties • The Movement for Women’s Rights: Demands of Women • Sought reforms in family & marriage laws • Secure divorces • Equal control of property for married women • Teaching was the first profession open to women • Women were not allowed to go to medical school • Women who were Pioneers in Nursing • Amalie Sieveking (1794-1859) • Founded the Female association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in Hamburg, Germany • Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) • Nurse in the Crimean War • Clara Barton (1821-1912) • Nurse in American Civil War

28. Growing demands of suffragists • Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) • Leader of the women’s suffrage movement in England • Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union along with her daughters • Took a radical approach to gaining media attention for their cause • Publicity – Pelted gov. officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, burned rail cars, hunger strikes • Emily Davison threw herself in front of the king’s horse (killing herself) to draw attention to women’s suffrage • Peace movements • Bertha von Suttner (1843-1914) • Founded a peace movement in Austria to protest the growing arms race in the 1890s • The New Woman • 20th century women that supported new ideologies & sought equal rights • Maria Montessori and Bertha von Suttner are both examples of “new women” • Maria Montessori (1870-1952) • Attended medical school in Rome • New teaching materials • Began the system of Montessori schools • Natural & spontaneous education system that allowed children to learn at their own pace

29. Possible Test Question • The leader of the women’s suffrage movement in England was • Louise Michel. • Babette Josephs. • Emmeline Pankhurst. • Octavia Hill. • Violet Asquith.

30. Jews in the European Nation-State • By the end of the 19th century, Jews were emancipated in most countries with some restrictions • Allowed them to get involved in politics and move out of the ghetto • Anti-Semitism • Revival of hatred towards Jews • Portrayed as the murders of Jesus • Strongest anti-Semitism was in Eastern Europe (Germany, Austria, & Russia) • Persecution in Eastern Europe • Pogroms (massacres) in Russia • Emigration • Jews moved to U.S., Canada & Palestine • The Zionist Movement • Zionism • Planned migration to Palestine to form a Jewish state • Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) leader of the Zionist Movement • The Jewish State, 1896 • Advocated Jews returning to Israel (Palestine) to form a Jewish state • Gained support from Jewish bankers • Slowly, Jews began to emigrate to Palestine

31. Palestine

32. Possible Test Question • Theodor Herzl, the leader of the Zionist movement, • Advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. • Advocated the development of separate Jewish communities in European cities. • Argued that Jewish assimilation into western European society would only be complete when Jews renounced their religious beliefs. • Argued that living conditions for Jews were better in eastern Europe than in western Europe. • Demanded that war be declared against the Ottoman Empire.

33. The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain & Italy • Britain • Working Class Demands • Caused Liberals to move away from ideals (like laissez-faire) • Trade Unions • Advocate “collective ownership” and other controls • Unions grow in power • Strike to demand a minimum wage • Fabian Socialists • Stressed for workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation to help the laboring class • They were not Marxists • They wanted social revolution through democratic means • Britain’s Labour Party • Fabian Socialists & trade unions joined forces to form the Labour Party

34. David Lloyd George (1863-1945) • Abandons laissez-faire • Backs social reform measures • In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reforms, he curtails the power of the House of Lords • National Insurance Act, 1911 • Sick pay, unemployment • Beginnings of the welfare state • Later legislation provided a small pension plan & worker’s compensation • Tax increases implemented on the wealthy class • Italy • Giovanni Giolitti (1903 – 1914) • Prime Minister of Italy • Transformismo (policy of Giolitti) • Transformism – political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political & economic bribery • Giolitti’s policy eventually make Italian politics corrupt & unmanageable

35. Possible Test Question • In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reform program, David Lloyd George radically curtailed the power of the • Army and navy. • Bank of England. • Monarchy. • House of Commons. • House of Lords.

36. France: Travails of the Third Republic • Dreyfus Affair (1895 – 1906) • Evidence of renewed anti-Semitism in Europe • Dreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French military • Accused and found guilty of being a spy, sentenced to life on Devil’s Island • More evidence revealed that the spy was a Catholic officer • Military refused to try the Catholic officer • Dreyfus was eventually pardoned • Rise of Radical Republicans • Determined to make France more democratic • Targeted the army and the Catholic Church • Purge of anti-republican individuals and institutions • 1905- separation of church and state

37. Possible Test Question • The event which exemplified renewed anti-Semitism in France in the late nineteenth century was the • Boulanger coup. • Sorel uprising. • Dreyfus affair. • Zola capitulation. • The fall of the Third Republic.

38. Growing Tensions in Germany • William II (1888-1918) • Ran Germany as a authoritarian, conservative, military state • Military and industrial power • By 1914, Germany was the strongest military and industrial power in Europe • Pan-German League (radical right-wing politics) • Advocated: • Strong German Nationalism • Imperialism to united different social classes at home • Anti-liberal policies • Anti-Semitic policies

39. Austria-Hungary: The Problem of the Nationalities • Parliamentary agitation for autonomy of nationalities • Granting universal male suffrage only increased the problem of governing multiple ethnic groups • Growth of German nationalism from a German minority group caused problems in Austria • Magyar (Hungarian land owning class) agitation for complete separation of Hungary from Austria • New Hungarian parliamentary leader kept Magyars from rising up and worked to keep the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) intact

40. Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia • In 1890s, government sponsored massive industrialization • By 1900 the fourth largest producer of steel • Development of working class • Development of socialist parties • Marxist Social Democratic Party, Minsk, 1898 • The Revolution of 1905 • Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 • Russia’s defeat led indirectly to the Revolution of 1905 • “Bloody Sunday” January 9, 1905 • Transport system wasn’t working due to the war, which led to food shortages • Workers went to the Winter Palace to present a list of grievances to the Tsar • Royal troops fired on the peaceful protest killing hundreds • Workers called for strikes and organized unions • General strike, October 1905 • Under pressure, Nicholas II granted civil liberties and a legislative body, the Duma • Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907 

41. Possible Test Question • Russia’s disastrous defeat in the Russo-Japanese war indirectly led to • The dismissal of Count Witte. • The loss of all of Siberia to Japan. • The enlargement of the Duma. • An unsuccessful coup by the Tsar. • The Revolution of 1905.

42. The Rise of the United States • Shift to an industrial nation, 1860-1914 • World’s richest nation and greatest industrial power • 9 percent own 71 percent of wealth • American Federation of Labor • Included only 8.4 percent of industrial labor • Lacked real power due to low membership • Progressive Era • Reform • Meat Inspection Act, Pure Food and Drug Act • Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921 • Income tax and Federal Reserve System

43. The Growth of Canada • Dominion of Canada • Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick – 1870 • Manitoba, British Columbia – 1871 • Lack of real unity due to French Quebec • William Laurier, 1896, first French Canadian prime minister • Made peace between French Canadians and the rest of Canada • Helped industrialize Canada • Led to hundreds of thousands of immigrants

44. Canada, 1871

45. The New Imperialism • Causes of the New Imperialism • Competition among European nations for prestige • Social Darwinism and racism • Religious humanitarianism, “White man’s burden” • Economic motives and military bases • The Scramble for Africa • South Africa • Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) • Diamond and gold companies • Takes the Transvaal (Dutch Region) • Attempts to overthrow the neighboring Boer Government • Boer War, 1899-1902 • British defeat Boers (Dutch) and offer them a lenient peace • Union of South Africa, 1910

46. Possible Test Question • The Boer War was fought by the British in • Australia. • China. • Zimbabwe. • Botswana. • South Africa.

47. The Scramble for Africa (cont) • Portuguese and French Possessions • Mozambique • Angola • Algeria, 1830 • West Africa and Tunis • The British in Egypt • Belgium and Central Africa • Leopold II, 1865-1909 • International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa, 1876 • Exploration of the Congo • French reaction is to move into territory north of the Congo River • German Possessions • Bismarck was against colonialism, he knew it helped win elections • South West Africa; Cameroons; Togoland; East Africa • Impact on Africa • By 1914, almost all of Africa was carved up between European powers

48. Map 24.1: Africa in 1914

49. Imperialism in Asia • The British in Asia • James Cook to Australia, 1768-1771 • British East India Company • Empress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876 • Russian Expansion • Siberia • Reach Pacific coast, 1637 • Korea and Manchuria • China • British acquisition of Hong Kong • European rivalry and the establishment of spheres of influence • Japan and Korea • Matthew Perry opens Japan, 1853-1854 • Southeast Asia • British and French control • American Imperialism • US and the Spanish-American War • Controlled Pacific Islands for military bases to trade with Asia

50. Responses to Imperialism • Africa • New class of educated African leaders • Resentment of foreigners • Intellectual hatred of colonial rule • Political parties and movements • China • Boxer Rebellion, 1900-1901, Society of Harmonious Fists • Chinese nationalists who tried to kick foreigners out by force • Brutally put down by armies from around the world • Fall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, founding of the Republic of China • Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) • Overthrew the Manchu dynasty – China remained weak • Japan • Mutsuhito (1867 – 1912) – young emperor who westernized Japan • Meiji Restoration • Created democratic political & financial institutions but remained authoritarian in practice • Imitation of the West – sent Japanese abroad to get a western education • India • Costs and benefits of British rule • Brought order & introduced technology but subjugated the people • Indian National Congress (1883) • Moderate, educated Indians began to seek self government