Neuroscience of Learning

1. Neuroscience of Learning By Juan Garcia and Candice Markham

2. The Brain • This chapter addresses the relation of the nervous system to learning and behavior. The focus of the chapter is on the central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and the spinal cord.

3. Organization and Structure The CNS is composed of the spinal cord and the brain and is the body’s central mechanism for control of voluntary behavior.

4. Neural Organization • Neurons – the brain and spinal cord contain about 100 billion neurons that send and receive information across muscles and organ (Wolfe, 2001). • Neurons do not regenerate like other cells; they can be destroyed due to stroke, disease or accident • Neurons communicate with one another • Glial Cells – far more numerous than neurons. The are seen as the supporting cell to the neuron. • They do not transmit signals like neurons • They assist in the communication process between neurons

5. Synapses Dendrites – an elongated tissue that receives information from other cells Axon- is a long thread of tissue that sends messages to other cells Myelin sheath- surrounds the axon and facilitates the travel of signals

6. Communication • Chemical neurotransmitters sit at the end of the axon and electrical and chemical signals travel across the synaptic gap. • At the neural level, learning essentially is a change in the receptivity of cells brought about by neural connections formed, strengthened, and connected with others through use (Jensen, 2005; Wolfe, 2001)

7. Brain Structures Cerebral Cortex – processes sensory information; regulates various learning and memory functions Reticular Formation- controls bodily functions (i.e. breathing and blood pressure) Cerebellum- regulates body balance, posture , muscular control, movement, motor skill acquisition Thalamus- sends inputs from senses (except smell) to cortex Hypothalamus- controls homeostatic body functions (i.e. temperature, sleep, water, and food; increases heart rate and breathing during stress Amygdala- controls emotions and aggression; assesses harmfulness of sensory inputs Hippocampus- holds memory of immediate past and working memory; establishes information in long term memory Corpus callosum- connects right and left hemispheres Occipital lobe- processes visual information Parietal lobe- processes tactile information; determines body position; integrates visual information Frontal Lobe- processes information for memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, creativity; regulates muscular movements

8. You tell me which one? • Controls Speech • Comprehends Speech

9. The Great Debate Left Brain Right Brain Controls the left side visual field and side of the body Spatial, auditory, emotional artistic Negative emotions Primary location for assembling contextual information • controls the right side visual field and side of the body • Analytical thinking • Positive emotions • Highly verbal

10. Which are you? Left-Brained Right-Brained

11. Methods X-Ray – high frequency electromagnetic waves used to determine abnormalities in solid structures Computerized Axial Tomography Scans – enhanced images (3-D) used to detect body abnormalities Electroencephalographs- measures electrical patterns caused by movement of neurons; used to investigate various brain disorders Positron Emission Tomography Scans – assesses gamma rays produced by mental activity; provides overall picture of brain activity but limited by slow speed and participants; ingestion of radioactive material Magnetic Resonance Imaging- radio waves cause brain to produce signals that are mapped; used to detect tumors, lesions, and other abnormalities Functional magnetic resonance imaging- performance of mental task fires neurons, causes blood flow and changes magnetic flow; comparison with image of brain at rest shows responsible regions

12. Information Processing System • Sensory inputs are processed in the sensory memory portions of the brain, and those that are retained long enough are transferred to WM. WM seems to reside in multiple parts of the brain but primarily in the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe (Wolfe, 2001).

13. Sensory Overload

14. Hebb’s Theory • Hebb believed that when the cell assembly was aroused it would facilitate neural responses in other systems as well as motor responses. Hebb felt that repeated stimulation led to growth of synaptic knobs that increased the contact between axons and dendrites (Hilgard, 1956).

15. Can the physical structure of the brain change? Yes No

16. Language Learning Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area is critical for proper word choice and elocution • Plays a major role in production of grammatically correct speech

17. Brain Development • What are the five factors affecting brain development?

18. Phases of Development Brain development occurs rapidly in infants. By age 2 a child will have as many synapses as an adult By the time adolescents turn 18 they have lost about half their infant synapses By age 5 a child’s brain has acquired a language and developed sensory motor skills

19. Critical Periods • What aspects of brain development have critical periods?

20. Language Development • Researchers often measure event-related potentials (or evoked potentials) which are changes in brain waves that occur when individuals anticipate or engage in various tasks (Halliday, 1998). • A critical period in language development seems to be between birth and age 5. During this time, children’s brains develop most of their language capabilities. There is a rapid increase in vocabulary between ages 19 and 31 months (Jensen, 2005). • Different areas of the brain must work together to learn language, such as area involved in seeing, hearing, speaking and thinking (Byrnes, 2001).

21. Motivation and Emotions • Brain processes linked with different cognitive functions • Research on noncognitive functions: motivation and emotions

22. Motivation • Process whereby goal directed activities are instigated and sustained • Motivated actions: choice of task, effort, persistence and achievement • Processes that affect motivation: goals, self-efficacy, needs, values and perceptions of control • Cognitive neuroscience perspective: two neural counterparts of motivation, rewards and motivational states.

23. Rewards • Expectation of Reward • Motivates Behavior rather than the reward itself • Motivation may decline overtime • Brain= produces its own rewards= opiates= natural high • Expectation, reward for competent or improved performance, which produces neurotransmitter, dopamine. • Brain can become satiated with rewards, larger reward needed to produce dopamine .

24. Implications for teaching • Expectation of reward or level will not motivate all students uniformly. • Teachers must learn what motivates each student • Establish a reward system that can accommodate changes in students’ preferences

25. Motivational State • CNP: Complex neural connections include emotions, cognitions and behaviors. • Integrated combination of mind body, and behavior that links with a web like network of synaptic connections • Teachers goal = students in a motivational state for learning.

26. Do emotions play a role in whether a student will learn? Yes No

27. Emotions • CNP - emotional reactions have four overlapping stages: orienting complex, emotional event integration, response selection and sustained emotional context • can help direct attention • Influence learning and memory • Teachers get students involved in learning, emotional interest rise • Motivation and emotions are integrally linked with cognitive processing and neural activities.

28. Implications For Teaching and Learning • Relevance of Brain Research • Educators interest • Educational materials and instructions • Understanding brain processes provides additional insights • Educators have over generalized results • Task require activity of both hemispheres • Relative than absolute

29. Educational Issues • Role of early education • Complexity of cognitive processes • Diagnosis of specific difficulties • Multifaceted nature of learning

30. Brain-Based Educational Practices • Problem-based learning • Simulations and role playing • Active discussions • Graphics • Positive climate

31. Which brain based educational practice do you feel you can implement in your classroom or work place. • Problem-based learning • Simulations and role playing • Active discussions • Graphics • Positive climate

32. Questions? Thank you have a Happy Easter!