A Cultural, Linguistic, and Ecological Framework for Response to Intervention

1. A Cultural, Linguistic, and Ecological Framework for Response to Intervention

2. 2 General Features of RTI High quality classroom instruction Research-based instruction Classroom staff design and complete student assessments and are actively involved in curriculum planning Universal screening of academics and behavior Continuous progress monitoring Research-based interventions Progress monitoring during interventions Fidelity measures

3. 3 General Attributes of RTI The concept of multiple tiers of increasingly intense student interventions Implementation of a differentiated curriculum with the option of different curriculum at second and third tiers Interventions can be delivered by staff other than classroom teacher (although classroom teachers� maintain ultimate responsibility) Varied duration, frequency and time of interventions Categorical or noncategorical placement decisions at highest tier

4. 4 Problems Where is the scientifically-based instruction for ELLs in either L1 or L2 literacy? Vaughn, Mathes, Linan-Thompson & Francis (2005) say: �At the current time, it is very difficult to actually implement this model with ELLs because efficacy of various interventions has not been tested with this population.� The main problem with RTI and ELLs is the same as that with standardized assessment � what is the appropriate standard, expectation for growth or baseline to use?

5. 5 IDEA Mandates Equity in Evaluation IDEA states that assessment materials: (a) should not be racially or culturally biased, and (b) should be provided in the child�s native language when feasible (20 U.S.C. �1412 (6)(B)). IDEA also mandates that states have policies and procedures in place to prevent disproportionality of diverse students in special education (20 U.S.C. �1412 (24)).

6. 6 RTI: Universal Screening for All Including ELL Students Screenings should occur for all ELL students in the following areas: Phonemic Awareness, letter knowledge, concepts of print The alphabetic code: phonics and decoding Fluency and automaticity Vocabulary Comprehension Screening should also occur for: First and second oral proficiency Existing knowledge base for content

7. 7 The Intervention Paradigm - Pros There is an increased emphasis on curriculum based assessment and alternative local assessments. Progress monitoring and universal screening for all. Students can be compared to peers in their local cohort rather than to national norms. There are increased opportunities for collaboration and consultation with other site support personnel.

8. 8 The Intervention Paradigm - Cons There is no mechanism for determining a disorder in the basic psychological processes (which remains part of the federal definition for LD). It may be difficult to determine if a child�s ecology or intrinsic learning problem is the primary cause of academic challenges. Once all interventions have been exhausted and a student�s progress has been minimal, there is little guidance as to next steps. Evaluation of a child�s cognitive abilities (not �learning styles�) may aide in determining why the previous interventions may not have been successful and what might be done to improve the interventions for this particular child.

9. 9 The Traditional Assessment Approach The traditional assessment approach has been criticized for: Emphasizing eligibility rather than linking to intervention Using a discrepancy approach in learning disability determinations that does not necessarily highlight a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes To circumvent the problems with the traditional approach, the RTI model has been outlined in IDEA 2004 as an alternative. The main idea of RTI is that students should receive interventions as early as possible and in the general classroom setting before being referred for a special education evaluation.

10. 10 However� Vellutino (2006) says �appropriate psychometric tests may also be useful in cross-validating initial impressions based on response to intervention.� �Over time, cognitive ability tests have moved away from �g� and there are now well-normed, well-validated, theory-based tests of cognitive processes that measure multiple and complex processes or abilities� (cited in Kavale, Holdnack & Mostert, 2005). In other words, standardized cognitive tests can be used in the RTI paradigm to identify processing profiles and NOT to provide a useless IQ or global score.

11. 11 Needed: New Framework In current RTI models, little focus has been on the role of standardized assessment, and there has been no discussion of the role of standardized assessments for ELL students. Some suggest that assessments must be part of the RTI process because the results can guide the design of appropriate interventions for an individual�s unique needs (Braden & Kratochwill, 1997; Hale & Fiorello, 2001). �It is virtually impossible to make a valid diagnosis or an individualized intervention program without test data gleaned from a comprehensive evaluation that elucidates individual strengths and weaknesses� (Kavale, Holdnack & Mostert, 2005, p. 9).

12. 12 A Framework for RTI for ELLs Tier I Baseline data gathered at least three times per year for all students General education instruction is appropriate and effective for culturally and linguistically diverse students If an ELL student is having academic difficulties, instruction is modified to match their level of language proficiency or possibly delivered in their native language (L1) Native language literacy instruction may be especially helpful to students whose L1 has a transparent, or consistent, orthography such as Spanish or Italian The intervention process at this level may be similar to the Pre-referral or Student Study Team process.

13. 13 A Framework for RTI for ELLs Tier I Extensive data should be collected to explore all possible reasons for student�s learning difficulty Parents should be interviewed for information on child�s major milestones and progress Interventions should be planned that target explicit skills and be implemented for a reasonable period of time (eight weeks) Baseline and post-intervention data should be gathered on the targeted skills

14. 14 A Framework for RTI for ELLs Tier I Tier I interventions should be based on research-based best practices for ELL students For reading, recommendations from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (August & Shanahan, 2006) could be used.

15. 15 Report of National Literacy Panel for ELLs The panel states that five components should be explicitly taught: Phonemic awareness The alphabetic code Fluency Vocabulary Comprehension

16. 16 However� There are two additional components that must be addressed: Explicit oral language development (preferably in L1 as well as English (L2) Whether the students has the background knowledge in the instructional content

17. 17 Phonemic Awareness, Letter Knowledge and Concepts of Print Some children must learn a new alphabetic system Some children may need to learn to read from left to right Phonemic awareness is a transferable skill and can be taught in either L1 or L2 Phonological tasks with unknown words are very difficult

18. 18 The Alphabetic Code: Phonics and Decoding Begin with pattern and predictable books and then move to decodable books Include a focus on comprehension For beginning ELL readers, wordless picture books are useful Systematic phonics should be linked to spelling If a student is literate in their first language they can be fast-tracked to decoding in English (with continued emphasis on comprehension) For ELL students in K-3 provide explicit instruction to develop English vocabulary and oral language When students encounter unknown words, give them the word since they may have difficulty decoding unfamiliar words by context clues For students with interrupted education who enter our system in grades 4-12, fast-track to English decoding (and target comprehension)

19. 19 Fluent, Automatic Reading of Text Provide repeated opportunities for students to read aloud familiar passages Provide read-along stories on tape For grades K-3 provide cross-age tutors for repeated readings For students with interrupted education who enter the system in grades 4 � 12, fast-track building fluency skills

20. 20 Vocabulary Teach different tiers of vocabulary (Beck, 2002) Provide explicit instruction in analyzing words to detect meaning Practice words in meaningful context

21. 21 Making Vocabulary and Concepts Comprehensible

22. 22 Vocabulary Development Nouns: Realia and visuals Verbs: meaningful actions with Total Physical Response (TPR) Adjectives: Graphic organizes and continuums

23. 23 Text Comprehension Books must be a close match to students� level of language proficiency Do not ask an ELL student to read aloud to assess their reading comprehension They need to read for meaning, not to become �word callers� Reading aloud may make ELL students self-conscious and send the wrong message so that fluency seems more important than comprehension

24. 24 Oral Language Proficiency ELL children need language rich environments Reading in any language is dependent upon a child�s oral language abilities in that language Children cannot comprehend what they are reading in a language they cannot speak and understand. Readers must be familiar with a minimum of 95% of the vocabulary in a text to comprehend.

25. 25 Background Knowledge and Motivation Students from diverse backgrounds may not have had the same experiences as mainstream peers U.S. curriculum is built on U.S. cultural norms and values which may be different from those of ELL children Students must e immersed in opportunities to gain the needed background knowledge through real opportunities and using real materials All students are motivated to learn when they see themselves in the curriculum and are taught that the language and culture they bring to school is valued.

26. 26 Tier II Different interventions than those in Tier I can be provided here Instruction is most likely in a small group and can be in the general ed room or another setting Instruction may be provided by another specialist (Title I teacher, reading specialist, speech and language therapist, etc.) Instruction should be supplemental to that in general ed Instruction MUST continue to be both linguistically and culturally appropriate Performance data continues to be collected and monitored A student who makes good progress may cycle back to Tier I A student who continues to have difficulties may move to Tier III

27. 27 Tier III Intensive and individual interventions may begin Student�s progress is again carefully monitored It may be appropriate to refer a student who has not responded or who has had limited response to Tier I and II interventions for special education assessment.

28. 28 Tier III The type of assessment that is appropriate here continues to be controversial. Some believe that students should be officially admitted to special education at this Tier since they have not responded well to previous interventions Others feel that a comprehensive evaluation should occur A comprehensive evaluation could include standardized assessment information (but not necessarily IQ scores)

29. 29 Modern Intelligence Theory �The Carroll-Horn-Cattell (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities is supported by a large network of validity evidence, which includes more than half a century of factor analytic, developmental, heritability, external outcome validity, and neurocognitive research evidence� (Floyd, Evans, McGrew, 2003).

31. 31 CHC Theory as a Problem Solving Model CHC Theory is a combination of the theories of three researchers Cattell Horn (his work was an extension of Cattell�s original Gf-Gc formulation) Carroll McGrew (2004) states: �CHC Theory of Intelligence is the tent that houses the two most prominent psychometric theoretical models of human cognitive abilities.� This model serves as the theoretical foundation for some of the latest cognitive assessment (WJ-III, Stanford Binet V, KABC-II, WISC IV/WAIS IV/WPPSI, and the upcoming DAS II) instruments and is gaining acceptance by assessment specialists (Fiorello & Primerano, 2005).

32. 32 Why Use CHC As Part of the Problem Solving Model? It is an empirically-based. Research shows that cognitive constructs are related to certain academic difficulties. It allows for identification of a processing disorder in one of more of the psychological processes. Assessment can be directly linked to intervention. Using CHC Theory and a cross-battery approach allows practitioners to use the Cultural and Linguistic Test Classifications (C-LTC) and Culture-Language Interpretive Matrix (C-LIM) (Ortiz & Flanagan, 1998; Ortiz, 2001; Flanagan & Ortiz, 2001; Ortiz & Ochoa, 2005; Ortiz & Dynda, 2005; Rhodes, Ochoa & Ortiz, 2005) for interpreting the test scores of ELL students in the most fair and defensible way.

33. 33 What ALL Teachers Need to Know

34. 34 Why Do Some Children Have Difficulty Learning to Read? Vellutino (2006) says there are two broad (but not mutually exclusive) possibilities: Basic cognitive deficits: �inherent limitations in reading related cognitive abilities that make it difficult for a child to acquire foundational reading skills. Experiential/Instructional deficits: �deficiencies in the child�s emergent literacy skills and/or early literacy instruction. I say there is one more possibility: Being culturally and linguistically diverse in a system that does not adequately accommodate these differences and build on the strengths these children bring with them.

35. 35 Questions Compton (2004) asks if low verbal ability, often a source of poor reading comprehension skill, is a defendable category of LD, particularly if the student is ELL?

36. 36 Questions If the federal definition of learning disability still includes a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes, how will these deficits be identified in the RTI model?

37. 37 English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish Twenty-seven consonants and consonant blends are the same in English and Spanish. However, there are many letters and combinations that are pronounced differently or that do not exist in Spanish. There sounds do not exist: Initial consonants of g, h, j, r, v, z Digraphs of ch, dg, sh, th, wh

38. 38 English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish Letter combinations: -ck, -ght, -nd, -ng, -nt, sc-, sch-, scr-, sk-, sl-, sm-, sn-, sp-, spl-, spr-, sq-, st-, str-, sw-, -tch, thr-, tw- Short vowel sounds /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ Long vowel sounds /a/ represented as a-e, ai, ay, ei; /e/ represented as ea, ee, ie, y; /i/ represented as I, i-e, ight, -ind, y; /o/ represented by o-e, oe, ow, oa, o; /u/ represented by u-e, u

39. 39 English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish Diphthongs au, aw, ew, oi, ou, ow, oy, ue R-controlled vowels /ar/, /er/, /ir/, /or/, /ur/ Schwa a as in again, a as in second a in camera and around, e as in stolen, e as in the second e in obedience, o as in dragon, u as in circus, and u as in suspect Silent letters �gn-, kn-, -mb, wr-

40. 40 Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by Spanish-speaking Students /st/ for /est/ Phonetic error: addition Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs in initial word positions because the syllabic consonant-vowel structure of the Spanish language means that no words starts with two consonants (besides clusters present in the language). /sh/ for /ch/ Phonetic error: change in the mode of articulation (a fricative for an affricate) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the sound /sh/ does not exist in Spanish, and it is substituted for the most similar one in Spanish; both phonemes are voiceless linguopalatals in terms of place of articulation. /b/ for /v/ Phonetic error: change in place and manner of articulation (a fricative is converted into an occlusive) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the sound /v/ is pronounced in Spanish as /b/.

41. 41 Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by Spanish-speaking Students /f/ or /s/ for /th/ Phonetic error: change in the place and manner of articulation (to a labiodental for /f/ and to a linguoalvelar for /s/) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the /th/ does not exist in Spanish and is substituted for phonemes that have the same manner of articulation and voice. /d/ for /b/ and /t/ for /th/ Phonetic error: change in place and manner of articulation ( a voiceless occlusive for a voiceless fricative) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/ does not exist in Spanish, and the /d/ and /t/ phonemes are pronounced with different points and manners of articulation in Spanish than in English.

42. 42 Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by Spanish-speaking Students /ch/ for /dz/ Phonetic error: change in a voice (a voiceless for a voiced phoneme) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the sound /dz/ does not exist in Spanish. /n/ for /ing/ Phonetic error: change in place of articulation (a voiced linguoalveolar for a voiced linguopalatal) Phonological strategy: linguistic transference. This transfer occurs because the phoneme /ing/ does not exist in Spanish.

43. 43 Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by Spanish-speaking Students /ch/ for /th/ Phonetic error: change in mode of articulation (a voiceless affricate for a voiceless fricative) Phonological strategy: linguistic transfer. This transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/ does not exist in Spanish. /ks/ for /rks/, /f/ for /lf/, /n/ for /nd/, /n/ for /nt/, and /s/ for /st/ Phonetic error: reductions of consonant clusters in final position Phonological strategy: avoidance. This occurs because the /ks/, /rks/, /lf/, /nt/, and /st/ phonemes do not exist in Spanish, due to its consonant-vowel syllabic structure.

44. 44 Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by Spanish-speaking Students /ch/ for /th/ Phonetic error: change in mode of articulation (a voiceless affricate for a voiceless fricative) Phonological strategy: linguistic transfer. This transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/ does not exist in Spanish. /ks/ for /rks/, /f/ for /lf/, /n/ for /nd/, /n/ for /nt/, and /s/ for /st/ Phonetic error: reductions of consonant clusters in final position Phonological strategy: avoidance. This occurs because the /ks/, /rks/, /lf/, /nt/, and /st/ phonemes do not exist in Spanish, due to its consonant-vowel syllabic structure.

45. 45 Phonemic Awareness and ELLs Rhyming may be difficult for ELL students because it is so dependent on English oral language proficiency. Nursery rhymes in Spanish are more likely to play with vowels, while in English they are more likely to play with consonants. ELL students need to see rhyming words in print as well as hear them. Two types of phoneme manipulations seem to be directly involved in the reading and spelling process: blending and segmenting.

46. 46 Viento trabajador El viento es trabajador. Soplando, soplando va, ayudando al sembrador y cantando as� al pasar: uuu, uuu, uuu. En los campos y praderas el viento es muy juguet�n hace bailar las hojitas al trino de su canci�n Uuu, uuu, uuu.

47. 47 Cosas que vemos La ara�ita es muy ligera porque tiene muchos pies, por su r�pida carerra, �muy notable es! La, la, la� Y el buen caracolito que tan s�lo tiene un pie, porque avanza despacito, �muy notable es! La, la, la, la�

48. 48 Hey Diddle Diddle (Nonsensical for ELL Students) Hey, diddle, diddle,The cat and the fiddle,The cow jumped over the moon.The little dog laughedTo see such sport,And the dish ran away with the spoon.

49. 49 Sing a Song of Sixpence (Nonsensical for ELL Students) Sing a song of sixpence,A pocket full of rye;Four and twenty blackbirdsBaked in a pie.When the pie was opened,They all began to sing.Now, wasn't that a dainty dishTo set before the King? The King was in his countinghouse,Counting out his money;The Queen was in the parlorEating bread and honey.The maid was in the garden,Hanging out the clothes.Along there came a big black birdAnd snipped off her nose!

50. 50 Teacher Roles in RTI What new roles will teachers have? Delivering scientifically-based instruction for all students including ELL students Administering curriculum-based measures Regularly monitoring progress Interpreting data Grouping students Choosing appropriate interventions Making decisions as to which students move into higher tiers

51. 51 To teach in a manner that respects and cares for the souls of our students is essential if we are to provide the necessary conditions where learning can most deeply and intimately begin. - bell hooks, Teaching to Transgress

52. 52 To Conclude� �It is essential to find out what works with whom� (cited in NCCRESt, 2005, p. 5). http://www.nccrest.org/