The Sophist to 259C (p. 283) Philosophy 190: Plato Fall, 2014 Prof. Peter Hadreas

1. The Sophist to 259C (p. 283) Philosophy 190: Plato Fall, 2014 Prof. Peter Hadreas Course website: http://www.sjsu.edu/people/peter.hadreas/courses/Plato

2. Plato’s Academy, a mosaic in the Museo Nazionale, Naples, (Photo: Giraudon)

3. Date at which the Dialogue Begins The Sophist takes place one day after the conversation of the Theaetetus. The connection is made with the last line of the Theaetetus: “But let us meet here again in the morning, Theodorus.” (210D, p. 234) And at the end of the Theaetetus Socrates also says: “And now I must go to the King’s Porch to meet the indictment that Meletus has brought against me;” So the Sophist takes place not many days before Socrates’ trial in 399 BCE.

4. Central topic of the dialogue: To distinguish the sophist from the true philosopher, and in so doing, to sketch the structure of the world of Forms.

5. Beginning of the Sophist. (216A-p. 236) THEODORUS: We’ve come at the proper time by yesterday’s agreement, Socrates. We’re also bringing this man who’s visiting us. He’s from Elea and he’s a member of the group who gather around Parmenides and Zeno. And he’s very much a philosopher. (p. 238 – 218A) VISITOR: . . . So I’ll accept Theaetetus as the person to talk with. But if you’re annoyed at how long the job takes, you should blame your friends here and not me. THEAETETUS: I don’t think I’ll give out now, but if anything like that does happen we’ll have to use the other Socrates over there as a substitute. He’s Socrates namesake, but he’s my age and exercises with me and he used to sharing lots and tasks with me.

6. The focus on kinds or types is conveyed in the introduction of the Sophist. (217A-p. 237) THEODORUS: “ . . . What special thing do you have in mind? SOCRATES: This: did they think that sophists, statesmen and philosophers make up one kind of thing or two? Or did they divide them up into three kinds corresponding to the three names and attach one name to each of them? THEODORUS: I don’t think it would offend him [the Eleatic Stranger] to tell us about them, Or would it sir? VISITOR: No, Theaetetus, it wouldn’t offend me. I don’t have any objection. And the answer is easy: they think there are three kinds. Distinguishing what each of them is, though isn’t a small or easy job.” [my emphasis]

7. The Method of Division or diaeresis is not described in the Sophist but it is described in exalted terms in Plato’s late dialogue, Philebus

8. It called “a gift of the gods to men” in the Philebus “It is not very difficult to describe it, but extremely difficult to use it. For everything in any field of art that has ever been discovered has come to light because of this.” (404, 16C)

9. “ . . . hurled down from heaven by some Prometheus along with a most dazzling fire.” 404, 16D Jan Cossiers, 17th century

10. The Method of Division as Described in the Philebus. “And the people of old, superior to us and living in closer proximity to the gods, have bequeathed us this tale, that whatever is said to be consists of one and many, having in its nature limit and unlimitedness. Since this is the structure of things, we have to assume that there is in each case always one form for every one of them, and we must search for it, as we will indeed find it there. And once we have grasped it, we must look for two, as the case would have it, or if not, for three or some other number.” (16D, p. 404)

11. The Method of Division as Described in the Philebus [continued] “And we must treat every one of those further unities in the same way, until it is not only established of the original unit that it is one, many and unlimited, but also how many kinds it is. For we must not grant the form of the unlimited to plurality before we know the exact number of every plurality that lies between the unlimited and the one. Only then is it permitted to release each kind of unity into the unlimited and let it go. The gods, as I said, have left us this legacy of how to inquire and learn and teach one another.” (pp. 404-5; 16D-17A)

12. Difference Between the Concerns of the Eleatic Visitor and Socrates in the Sophist The Eleatic visitor says there that his method takes no interest in the relative goodness or badness of the kinds. ELEATIC STRANGER: “The method [the method employed by the Eleatic Stranger] aims at acquiring intelligence, so it tries to understand how all kinds of expertise belong to the same kind or not. And for that it values them all equally without thinking that some are more ridiculous than others, as far as their similarity is concerned. And it doesn’t consider a person more impressive because he exemplifies hunting by military expertise rather than by picking lice.” (p. 247, 227A –B).1 1. Adapted from Dorter, Kenneth, “The Method of Division in the Sophist: Plato’s Second Deuteros Plous.”

13. Difference Between the Concerns of the Eleatic Visitor and Socrates When the visitor’s sixth attempt to identify the sophist leads instead to a type that resembles the Socratic philosopher, he says: VISITOR: Well then, who are we going to say the people who apply this form of expertise are? I’m afraid to call them sophists. THEAETETUS: Why? VISITOR: So, we don’t pay sophists too high an honor. 1 1. Ibid.

14. Practicing‘hunting’ the sophist through an easier and more ‘trivial’ example:‘the angler’ “ Visitor: . . . Theaetetus, since we think it’s hard to hunt down and deal with the kind, sophist, we ought to practice our method of hunting on something easier first – unless you can tell us about another way that’s somehow more promising. [my emphasis] Theaetetus: I can’t. Visitor: Do you wants to focus on something trivial and try to use it as a model for the more important issue? Theaetetus: Yes. Visitor: What might we propose that’s unimportant and easy to understand, but, can have an account given of it just as much as more important things can? For example, an angler: isn’t that recognizable to everybody, but not worth being too serious about?” (218D-E; p. 238-9)

15. ‘Angling’ defined by method of division (219A-221C; pp. 239-41)

16. But the Method of Division (Diaeresis) as Practiced by the Eleatic Stranger in the Sophist, as Opposed to How it is Practiced by Socrates in the Philebus, May Be Itself a Sophistic Exercise “There can be no doubt that the Stranger makes remarks about diaeresis which encourage us to regard it as a quasi-mathematical procedure of universal competence. But these remarks must be measured against the actual functioning of diaeresis in the Stranger’s hands. Perhaps diaeresis is like the sophist in wrongly claiming to know everything.”1 1. Rosen, Stanley, Plato’s Sophist: The Drama of Original and Image, (South Bend, IN: Sty. Augustine Press, 1999), p. 85.

17. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis I • (222B-223B, p. 242-3) • There are two kinds of land hunting: hunting of wild and tame animals. Humans are presumed to be tame animals. • There are two types of hunting tame animals: hunting by force, i. e., piracy, enslavement, tyranny; and by expertise in persuasion, i. e., through legal oratory, political oratory and by conversation. • Hunting by persuasion may divided into public and private persuasion. • Hunting by private persuasion may be divided into as motivated by earning wages or giving gifts. Giving gifts is illustrated through lovers gaining in private persuasion by also giving gifts. • Hunting for the purpose of gaining salaries is divided into two groups: in the first group the practitioners provide pleasurable conversation, through flattery, for money; the second group converses, so it claims for the sake of virtue, but its practitioners accept monetary wages. • The sophist is of the first type: “ . . . hunting by persuasion, hunting privately, and money earning. It’s the hunting of rich prominent young men.”

18. Stephen Ma of ThinkTank “After signing an agreement in May 2012, the family [of a Hong Kong CEO) wired Ma $700,000 over the next five months—before the boy had even applied to college. The contract set out incentives that would pay Ma as much as $1.1 million if the son got into the No. 1 school in U.S. News’ 2012 rankings. (Harvard and Princeton were tied at the time.” downloaded 10/18/2014 from http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-09-03/college-consultant-thinktank-guarantees-admission-for-hefty-price

19. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis II • (223C-224D, p. 244-5) • Expertise in acquisition has two parts, hunting and exchanging • Exchanging has two types, giving and selling • Selling is divided into selling what the seller makes and the other is purveying, that is selling what others make. • If the selling is done within one’s own city it is called retailing. If it is done between cities it is called wholesaling. • Selling between cities for cash is divided between nourishing and use for the body or the soul. • Selling as wholesaling so as to nourish the soul, is divided into ‘the display of soul-wholesaling’ and secondly in ‘expertise selling’ of virtue.

20. Jimmy Swaggart (1935 -- ) Sophist #2: “‘the display of soul-wholesaling’ and secondly in ‘expertise selling’ of virtue.”Jimmy Swaggart is an American Pentecostal pastor, and televangelist. In the 1980s his weekly telecast was transmitted to over 3000 stations a week. Sexual scandals in the 1980s and 1990s led the Assemblies of God to defrock him.

21. Helping people reach their greatest potential

22. Date: June 26 – June 29, 2014 Location: San Jose Convention Center 150 West San Carlos Street San Jose, CA 95113 408‐295‐9600 Registration: Thursday, June 26, 2014 8:00am – 12:30pm General Registration –Convention Center Lobby Throughout his writings, seminars and speeches Robbins espouses viewpoints, techniques and other practices he asserts can help adherents improve their lives. Among these are methods he calls the "controlling state" and "neuro-associative conditioning." He also speaks a great deal about various "human needs, influences that affect people, the power of making decisions" and the need to achieve "emotional mastery." He espouses a concept he calls "Life's Two Master Lessons" which he claims are (1) "The science of achievement" and (2) "The art of fulfillment.” . . . . Robbins refers to Harvey and Marilyn Diamond as his "former partners”. The National Council Against Health Fraud wrote a highly critical review of the chapter. Downloaded 10/19/2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Robbins

23. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis III & IV • (224D-E, p. 245) • Same as diaeresis II, except diaeresis III & IV pick up from alternative in diaeresis II about whether selling and exchange is across cities or in one own city. In Diaresis III & IV, “ . . . Sophistry falls under acquisition, exchange, and selling either by retailing things that other make or by selling things that he makes himself. It’s the retail sales of any learning that has to do with the sorts of things we mentioned [that is with virtue].” • If the retailing is of goods that he bought from others it’s come to a result via diaeresis III. If it’s involves the retailing of one’s own goods it’s diaeresis IV.

24. “CounselingCalifornia.com is your free online resource to receiving valuable information about life's challenges and tips on getting help. It also allows you to search for a therapist in your neighborhood. The site does the work for you - just type in your ZIP code to match you with highly qualified therapists who specialize in areas that meet your needs.” downloaded 10/17/2014 from quoted from http://counselingcalifornia.com/california-therapist/find-a-therapist-in-san-jose.html

25. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis V • (224E – 226A, p. 245-6) • The hunter is occupied with contests. Contests are divided into peaceful and warlike contests. • Warlike contests are divided into bodily violent and argumentative. • Argumentative contests, contest relying on words are divided into public debates that involve lengthy speeches and private disputations that depend on shorter questions and answers. • Private disputation are divided into those without serious concerns, ‘chatter,’ and a second that makes money because it causes pleasure in its audience.

26. Bill Maher • Especially as he presents him self in “HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher” • Sophist #5: “The sophist makes money through disputes because of the pleasure it brings to its audience.”

27. Introduction to the Sixth diaeresis1 “We come now to the last, longest, and most interesting of the initial set of diaireses. There will be a final division of the terrain at the end of the dialogue The major stretch of the dialogue from 231B9 to 264B9 is thus a digression from the diaeretic exercises. However, the digression is needed, according to the Stranger, because of the inadequacy of diaeresis, which cannot grasp the sophist by itself.” . . . “The Stranger agrees with Theaetetus that both hands are needed to capture the sophist (226B1). He then starts off abruptly on a new scent, one which is entirely independent both of the angler paradigm and the first four [by our count five] definitions of the sophist.” 1. Rosen, Stanley, Plato’s Sophist: The Drama of Original and Image, (South Bend, IN: St. Augustine Press, 1999), p. 115.

28. Introduction to the Sixth Diaeresis [continued]1 “The Stranger poses a question that puzzles Theaetetus, but which our preliminary reflection makes quite pertinent. Do we give names to some tasks performed by servants?” . . . “Whereas in the Statesman the Stranger explicitly compares diaeresis to the homely art of weaving, in the Sophist, he implicitly [or almost explicitly] compares diaeresis to bread and clothes making. In both these arts, natural products are modified in accord with human need, the result is in each case an artifact, but one directly toward a natural end, the preservation and care of the living body.” 1. Rosen, Stanley, Plato’s Sophist: The Drama of Original and Image, (South Bend, IN: St. Augustine Press, 1999), p. 117-8.

29. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis VI • (226B – 231B, p. 245-6) • The main type of arts at issue are those that involve kinds of dividing up. They may involve separating worse from better, in household skills, e. g., filtering, straining and winnowing, and separating like from like, e. g., carding, spinning and weaving. Both are kinds of ‘discriminating.’ Discrimination that leaves what’s better and throws away the worse is called ‘cleansing.’ • Cleansing is divided into those that treat the body, such as gymnastics and medicine, and those that treat the soul cleansing it from wickedness or ignorance. • Ignorance can consist in not knowing but thinking you know (229C) or lack of learning. The latter is handled through education.

30. What Is A ‘Sophist’diaeresis VI [continued] (226B – 231B, p. 245-6) 4. As for thinking one’s knows when one doesn’t, one has to get rid of the belief in one’s wisdom. How to treat that? Some people “cross examine someone when he thinks he’s saying something though he’s saying nothing. Then since his opinions will vary inconsistently, these people will easily scrutinize them. They collect his opinions together during the discussion, put them side by side, and show that they conflict with each other at the same time on the same subjects in relation to the same things and in the same respects.” (230B-C, p. 250-1) “ . . . This is nothing other than our noble sophistry.”

31. Sophist VI Getting People to Realize They Don’t Have Knowledge When They Think They Have (230B-D; pp. 250-1) “Visitor: They cross-examine someone when he thinks he’s saying something though he’s saying nothing. Then, since his opinions will vary inconsistently, these people will easily scrutinize them. They collect his opinions together during the discussion, put them side by side, and show that they conflict with each other at the same time on the same subjects in relation to the same things, and in the same respects. The people who are being examined see this, get angry at themselves, and become calmer toward others.

32. Sophist VI Getting People to Realize They Don’t Have Knowledge When They Think They Have (230B-D; pp. 250-1) (continuing) “Visitor: They lose their inflated rigid beliefs about themselves that way, and no loss is pleasanter to hear or has more lasting effect on them. Doctors who work on the body think it can’t benefit from any food that’s offered to it until what’s interfering with it from inside is removed. The people who cleanse the soul, my young friend, likewise think the soul, too, won’t get any advantage from any learning that’s offered to it until someone shames it by refuting it, removes the opinions that interfere with learning, and exhibits it cleansed, believing that it knows only those things that it does know, and nothing more.”

33. Summary of Six Types of Sophist that Method of Division would seem to Uncover (231D-E; p. 252) “Visitor: But let’s stop first and catch our breadth, so to speak. And while we’re resting let’s ask ourselves, “Now, how many different appearances has the sophist presented to us?” I think we first discovered him as a hired hunter of rich young men. Theaetetus: Yes. Visitor: Second, as a wholesaler of learning about the soul. Theaetetus: Right. Visitor: Third, didn’t he appear as a retailer of the same things? Theaetetus: Yes, and fourth as a seller of his own learning? Visitor: Your memory is correct. I’ll try to recall the fifth way: he was an athlete in verbal combat, distinguished by his expertise in debating. Theaetetus: Yes. Visitor: The sixth appearance was disputed, but still we made a concession to him and took it that he cleanses the soul of beliefs that interfere with learning. Theaetetus: Definitely.”

34. First six definitions of‘Sophist’ defined by method of division

35. But All of the Six Definitions of Sophist May Not Have Genuine Knowledge (323A-324C; pp. 254-5) “Visitor: Well, then, suppose people apply the name of a single sort of expertise to someone, but he appears to have expert knowledge of lots of things. In a case like that don’t you notice that something’s wrong with the way he appears?” (323A – p. 252)

36. But All of the Six Definitions of Sophist May Not Have Genuine Knowledge [continued] (232A-234C; pp. 252-5) (continued) “Visitor: . . . In fact, take expertise in disputation as a whole. Doesn’t it seem like a capacity that’s sufficient for carrying on controversies about absolutely everything? Theaetetus: It doesn’t seem to leave much out anyway. Visitor: But for heaven’s sake, my boy, do you think that’s possible? Or maybe young people see into this issue more keenly than we do. Theaetetus: Into what? What are you getting at? I don’t fully understand what you’re asking. Visitor: Whether it’s possible for any human being to know everything. Theaetetus: If it were, sir, we’d be very well off. Visitor: But how could someone who didn’t know a subject make a sound objection again someone who knew about it? Theaetetus: He couldn’t. (232E-233A; p. 253)

37. L. Ron Hubbard “The evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history, background and achievements. The writings and documents in evidence additionally reflect his egoism, greed, avarice, lust for power, and vindictiveness and aggressiveness against persons perceived by him to be disloyal or hostile. At the same time it appears that he is charismatic and highly capable of motivating, organizing, controlling, manipulating and inspiring his adherents. He has been referred to during the trial as a "genius," a "revered person," a man who was "viewed by his followers in awe." Obviously, he is and has been a very complex person and that complexity is further reflected in his alter ego, the Church of Scientology.”Breckenridge Jr., Paul G. (October 24, 1984). Memorandum of Intended Decision, Church of Scientology of California vs. Gerald Armstrong. Quoted by Miller, pp. 370-71

38. Renewed attempt to define the‘Sophist’ by method of division Diaeresis VII

39. Escaping criticism, 1874, Pere Borrell Del Caso (1835-1910) “Visitor: . . . Then we know that when he shows his drawings from far away he’ll be able to fool the more mindless young children into thinking that he can actually produce anything he wants to.” (234B; p. 255)

40. Example of Representational Art, David Abed: Still Life with Brown Jug, Oil “Visitor: One type of imitation I see is the art of likeness-making. That’s the one we have whenever someone produces an imitation by keeping to the proportions of length, breadth, and depth of his model, and also by keeping to the appropriate color of its parts.” (253E-p. 256)

41. Gliterari Elvis, The Official Bad Art Museum of Art, Cafe Racer located, 5828 Roosevelt Way, Seattle WA 98105. “Visitor: Wouldn’t appearance-making be the right thing to call expertise in producing appearances that aren’t likenesses? Theaetetus: Yes, definitely.” (236C; p. 256)

42. The Problem of Non-Being 236C-239D

43. Being and Not-Being “To define the sophist as an expert in deception, as someone who produces false appearances by means of statements, the Stranger needs to show that Parmenides was wrong; he needs to demonstrate that it is possible to say and to think that things that are not are, and to do so without contradiction. He starts with a series of puzzles about not-being and then suggests that we may be in similar confusion about being.”1 1. Gill, Mary Louise, "Method and Metaphysics in Plato's Sophist and Statesman", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2009/entries/plato-sophstate/>.

44. Paradoxes of Non-being Talking of Non-Being Reduces One to Silence (237C-E; p. 258) “Visitor: But anyway this much is obvious to us, that that which is not can’t be applied to any of those things which are. Theaetetus: Of course not. Visitor: So if you can’t apply it to that which is, it wouldn’t be right either to apply it to something. Theaetetus: Why not? Visitor: It’s obvious to us that we always apply this something to a being, since it’s impossible to say it by itself, as if it were naked and isolated from all beings. Isn‘t that right? Theaetetus: Yes.

45. Paradoxes of Non-being Talking of Non-Being Reduces One to Silence (237C-E; p. 258) (continued) “Visitor: Are you agreeing because you’re thinking that a person who says something has to be saying some one thing? Theaetetus: Yes. Visitor: Since you’d say the something is a sign of one, and that a couple of things is a sign of two, and somethings is a sign of a plurality? Theaetetus: Of course Visitor: And it’s absolutely necessary, it seems, that someone who does not say something says nothing at all. Theaetetus: Yes.”

46. Paradoxes of Non-being Argument Applied in General to Thinking and Conceiving Non-Being (238; p. 259) “Visitor: Do you understand, then, that it’s impossible to say, speak or think that which is not itself correctly by itself? It’s unthinkable, unsayable, unutterable, and unformulable in speech. Theaetetus: Absolutely.”

47. The Visitor From Elea Quotes from Parmenides’ Poem: (237A; p. 257) Never shall this force itself on us, that that which is not may be; While you search, keep your thought far away from this path.

48. Images Reconsidered

49. The Sophist proposes a ‘likeness’ and in so doing forces us to agree that ‘that which is not’ in a way ‘is’. (240B-C; p. 261) “Visitor: So you’re saying that that which is like is not really that which is, if you speak of it as not true. Theaetetus: But it is, in a way. Visitor: But not truly you say. Theaetetus: No, except that it is really a likeness. Visitor: So it’s not really what is, but it is really what we call a likeness? Theaetetus: Maybe that which is not is woven together with that which is in some way like that – it’s quite bizarre. Visitor: Of course it’s strange. Anyway, you can see that the many-headed sophist is still using this interweaving to force us to agree unwillingly that that which is not in a way is.”

50. Shift from asking What is Non-Being? to What is Being? (244B; p. 263) Visitor [as if speaking to Ionian and Eleatic Pre-Socratics]: “Then clarify this for us, since we’re confused about it. What do you want to signify when you say being? Obviously you’ve known for a long time. We thought we did, but now we’re confused about it. So first teach it to us, so we won’t think we understand what you’re saying when just the contrary is the case.” NOTE: Martin Heidegger makes this passage an introductory epigram in Being and Time.