Combined Power Point & Notes: Biology 111A Lange

1. Combined Power Point & Notes: Biology 111A Lange This lecture is being provided in this format because of the inclement weather issue experienced during the last week of classes prior to the final exam. ***Be sure to look at the NOTES I have added to this PowerPoint.

2. Animal Behavior, Ethology, & Behavioral Ecology

3. A courting pair of East Asian red-crowned cranes (Grus japonicus)

4. Dorsal fin Anal fin A male African cichlid (Neolamprologus tetracephalus) with erect fins

5. (a) A male three-spined stickleback fish shows its red underside. (b) The realistic model at the top, without a red underside, produces no aggressive response in a male three-spined stickleback fish. Theother models, with red undersides, produce strong responses. Sign stimuli in a classic fixed action pattern

6. BEHAVIOR: A male stickleback fish attacks other male sticklebacks that invade its nesting territory. PROXIMATE CAUSE: The red belly of the intruding male acts as a sign stimulus that releases aggression in a male stickleback. ULTIMATE CAUSE: By chasing away other male sticklebacks, a male decreasesthe chance that eggs laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by another male. Proximate and ultimate perspectives on aggressive behavior by male sticklebacks

7. BEHAVIOR: Young geese follow and imprint on their mother. PROXIMATE CAUSE: During an early, critical developmental stage, the young geese observe their mother moving away from them and calling. ULTIMATE CAUSE: On average, geese that follow and imprint on their mother receive more care and learn necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of surviving than those that do not follow their mother. Proximate and ultimate perspectives on imprinting in graylag geese

8. Imprinting for conservation

9. Moist site under leaf Dry open area (a) Kinesis increases the chance that a sow bug will encounter and stay in a moist environment. Direction of river current (b) Positive rheotaxis keeps trout facing into the current, the direction from which most food comes. A kinesis and a taxis

10. (a) Minnows are widely dispersed in an aquarium before an alarm substance is introduced. (b) Within seconds of the alarm substance being introduced, minnows aggregate near thebottom of the aquarium and reduce their movement. Minnows responding to the presence of an alarm substance

11. EXPERIMENT William Etges raised a D.mojavensis population from Baja California and a D. mojavensis population from Sonora on three different culture media: artificial medium, agria cactus (the Baja host plant), and organ pipe cactus (the Sonoran host plant). From each culture medium, Etges collected 15 male and female Baja D. mojavensis pairs and 15 Sonoran pairs and observed the numbers of matings between males and females from the two populations. RESULTS When D. mojavensis had been raised on artificial medium, females from the Sonoran population showed a strong preference for Sonoran males (a). When D. mojavensis had been raised on cactus medium, the Sonoran females mated with Baja and Sonoran males in approximately equal frequency (b). With Baja males (a) 100 With Sonoran males 75 (b) Proportion of matings by Sonoran females 50 25 0 Agria cactus Artificial Organ pipe cactus Culture medium CONCLUSION The difference in mate selection shown by females that developed on different diets indicates that mate choice by females of Sonoran populations of D. mojavensis is strongly influenced by the dietary environment in which larvae develop. How does dietary environment affect mate choice by female Drosophila mojavensis?

12. Influence of Cross-Fostering on Male Mice

13. A female digger wasp excavates and cares for four or five separate underground nests, flying to each nest daily with food for the single larva in the nest. To test his hypothesis that the wasp uses visual landmarks to locate the nests, Niko Tinbergen marked one nest with a ring of pinecones. EXPERIMENT Nest When the wasp returned, she flew to the center of the pinecone circle instead of to the nearby nest. Repeating the experiment with many wasps, Tinbergen obtained the same results. RESULTS The experiment supported the hypothesis that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of their nests. CONCLUSION No Nest Nest Does a digger wasp use landmarks to find her nest? After the mother visited the nest and flew away, Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest.

14. Operant conditioning

15. Young chimpanzees learning to crack oil palm nuts by observing older chimpanzees

16. 14 Low population density 12 High population density 10 8 Average path length (cm) 6 4 2 0 H5 L1 L2 L3 H1 H2 H3 H4 D. Melanogaster lineages Evolution of foraging behavior by laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster

17. Small prey at middle distance Small prey at close distance Large prey at far distance Low prey density High prey density Small prey Small prey Small prey 33% 33% 14% 35% 33% 33% Medium prey Medium prey Medium prey 50% 33% 33% Large prey Large prey Large prey Percentage available 100% Predicted percentage in diet 32.5% 2% 40% 32.5% 57% 35% Observed percentage in diet Feeding by bluegill sunfish

18. Agonistic behavior

19. Naked mole rats, a species of colonial mammal that exhibits altruistic behavior

20. Control Sample Male guppies with varying degrees of coloration Female guppies prefer males with more orange coloration. Experimental Sample Female model engaged in courtship with less orange male Female guppies prefer less orange males that are associated with another female. Mate choice copying by female guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

21. Community Ecology

22. EXPERIMENT RESULTS Ecologist Joseph Connell studied two baranacle speciesBalanus balanoides and Chthamalus stellatusthat have a stratified distribution on rocks along the coast of Scotland. When Connell removed Balanus from the lower strata, the Chthamalus population spread into that area. High tide High tide Chthamalus Chthamalusrealized niche Balanus Chthamalusfundamental niche Balanusrealized niche Ocean Ocean Low tide Low tide In nature, Balanus fails to survive high on the rocks because it isunable to resist desiccation (drying out) during low tides. Its realized niche is therefore similar to its fundamental niche. In contrast, Chthamalus is usually concentrated on the upper strata of rocks. To determine the fundamental of niche of Chthamalus, Connell removed Balanus form the lower strata. CONCLUSION The spread of Chtamalus when Balanus wasremoved indicates that competitive exclusion makes the realizedniche of Chthamalus much smaller than its fundamental niche. Can a species’ niche be influenced by interspecific competition?

23. Cryptic coloration: canyon tree frog

24. Aposematic coloration: poison arrow frog

25. (b) Green parrot snake (a) Hawkmoth larva Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one

26. (a) Cuckoo bee (b) Yellow jacket Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other

27. Mutualism between acacia trees and ants

28. A possible example of commensalism between cattle egrets and water buffalo

29. Quaternary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Tertiary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Primary consumers Zooplankton Herbivore Primary producers Plant Phytoplankton A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain Examples of terrestrial and marine food chains

30. Humans Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Sperm whales Elephant seals Leopard seals Crab-eater seals Squids Fishes Birds Carnivorous plankton Euphausids (krill) Copepods Phyto-plankton An antarctic marine food web

31. Extinction Immigration Extinction (small island) Immigration Immigration (far island) Extinction (near island) (large island) Extinction Immigration (far island) Rate of immigration or extinction Rate of immigration or extinction Rate of immigration or extinction (large island) Extinction Immigration (near island) (small island) Small island Equilibrium number Large island Far island Near island Number of species on island Number of species on island Number of species on island (a) Immigration and extinction rates. The equilibrium number of species on anisland represents a balance between the immigration of new species and theextinction of species already there. (b) Effect of island size. Large islands may ultimately have a larger equilibrium num-ber of species than small islands because immigration rates tend to be higher and extinction rates lower on large islands. (c) Effect of distance from mainland. Near islands tend to have largerequilibrium numbers of species thanfar islands because immigration ratesto near islands are higher and extinctionrates lower. The equilibrium model of island biogeography

32. Ecosystems

33. Tertiary consumers 10 J Secondary consumers 100 J Primary consumers 1,000 J Primary producers 10,000 J 1,000,000 J of sunlight An idealized pyramid of net production

34. THE CARBON CYCLE THE WATER CYCLE CO2 in atmosphere Transport over land Photosynthesis Solar energy Cellular respiration Net movement of water vapor by wind Precipitation over land Precipitation over ocean Evaporation from ocean Burning of fossil fuels and wood Evapotranspiration from land Higher-level consumers Primary consumers Percolation through soil Carbon compounds in water Detritus Runoff and groundwater Decomposition Nutrient Cycles

35. THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE THE NITROGEN CYCLE N2 in atmosphere Rain Plants Weathering of rocks Geologic uplift Runoff Assimilation Denitrifying bacteria Consumption NO3 Sedimentation Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes Plant uptake of PO43 Decomposers Nitrifying bacteria Soil Nitrification Leaching Ammonification NO2  NH3 NH4+ Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria Nitrifying bacteria Decomposition

36. 4.6 4.3 4.6 4.3 4.6 4.1 4.3 4.6 Europe North America Distribution of acid precipitation in North America and Europe, 1980

37. Field pH 5.3 5.2–5.3 5.1–5.2 5.0–5.1 4.9–5.0 4.8–4.9 4.7–4.8 4.6–4.7 4.5–4.6 4.4–4.5 4.3–4.4 4.3 Average pH for precipitation in the contiguous United States in 2002

38. Herring gull eggs 124 ppm Lake trout 4.83 ppm Concentration of PCBs Smelt 1.04 ppm Zooplankton 0.123 ppm Phytoplankton 0.025 ppm Biological magnification of PCBs in a Great Lakes food web

39. (b) October 2000 (a) October 1979 Erosion of Earth’s ozone shield