US Involvement in the Vietnam War

1. US Involvement in the Vietnam War

2. Learning Goals United States’ involvement in Vietnam: • the reasons for, and nature of, the involvement at different stages; • domestic effects • the end of the war

3. The Three Stages • 1945-1964: Assistance to France and then to South Vietnam • 1964-1968: Escalation—US involvement goes from 15,000 military advisors to 500,000 soldiers under Pres. Johnson • Vietnamization: Nixon’s attempt to achieve “peace with honor”

4. Background • Not a new area of the world in which the USA held interests • After WWII the French wanted to regain control over Indochinese peninsula (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand) • USA had been supplying Ho Chi Minh against Japanese—at end of WWII Ho Chi Minh declares independence for Vietnam, but France with British aid send in a military force to re-establish French rule

5. The “Communist Threat” • When France asked USA for help in regaining colonial rule, Truman said “no” • But then, the situation changed: • Soviet threat in Europe • Truman Doctrine • Mao Zedong in China • Korean War

6. American Involvement in Vietnam Begins • 1950: Truman gave the French $40 million in economic assistance and military equipment • 1950 to 1954: USA gave $2.6 billion to French, accounting for half the total cost of the war (400,000 French troops are losing the war) • Spring 1954: knock out blow—The Battle of Dien Bien Phu

7. Battle of Dien Bien Phu • 10,000 Fr troops were surrounded, cut off and captured • Fr pleaded with Ike to send in ground forces but he refused on VP Nixon’s advice • France is defeated and the Geneva Conference tried to restore peace

8. Results of Geneva Accord, 1954 • S Vietnam and USA did not sign • Acquiesced to the division of north and south at the 17th parallel with UN supervision of the cease fire • Viet Minh in North under Ho Chi Minh • French forces in the South • 450,000 refugees fled N to S—mostly Roman Catholic (50,000 went S to N) • UN supervised elections were to be held in Vietnam in 1956 to unify Vietnam • Ho Chi Minh sure to win > USA got involved covertly • CIA supported govt of S Vietnam > Ngo Dinh Diem • Diem cancels elections • SEATO > South East Asia Treaty Organization created for collective security of region included USA, UK, France, Australia (no Indochinese states are included)

9. Initial American Involvement • Diem became President of S. Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) • Ho Chi Minh’s guerilla units (Viet Cong) began infiltrating the South • Eisenhower continued to support the Diem regime and provided equipment, weapons and 1000 US soldiers as advisors to arm, train and mentor the army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) • 1957: Viet Cong (VC) began active operations in S. Vietnam (controlling jungles and attacking towns, cities and ARVN bases) • By 1959, VC had killed 2600 officials and controlled large portions of countryside

10. Kennedy Administration • 1961: 8000 more US advisors are in SV • Ineffectual: ARVN units were badly led, poorly trained and unmotivated • Without assistance from USA, South would lose • Foreign policy nightmare for Kennedy

11. Kennedy’s Foreign Policy Problems • Events undermined Kennedy’s intentions • 1961 • Bay of Pigs fiasco • Berlin Wall • Commitment of more forces to Vietnam • Sent VP Johnson on a “fact finding mission”

12. Result • US covert involvement in the overthrow and murder of the corrupt, authoritarian leader of the South, Diem (ahhh! Remember the USA had originally supported him—yikes!) • Historical debate about the extent of Kennedy’s support for actions in Vietnam (remember the term: plausible deniability) • USA had no choice but to start escalation of its involvement in Vietnam • When Kennedy is assassinated in November of 1963 in Dallas, the course is set

13. Escalation 1964-1968 • August 1964: USS Maddox was involved in a sea battle with N. Vietnamese torpedo boats • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: passed by Congress on Aug 7 1964, authorized President Johnson to use conventional military forces in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war • Americans were no longer “assisting”; they took over

14. Operation Rolling Thunder • An air campaign to bomb NV into submission • Thousands of missions; thousands of tonnes of bombs • Ground war heated up as well • Helicopters lifted ground forces to remote jungle regions • VC countered with ambushes

15. Public Opinion Turns • Mounting casualties lead Americans to question the cost of this war • Media brought disturbing images home to USA • “I can’t get out, I can’t finish with what I’ve got, so what the hell do I do?” Johnson • Tried to win the war before the 1968 election • By June 1965, 3600 bombing missions a month • By the end of 1966, 450,000 American ground troops • Whitehouse tells American public they are winning

16. The Tet Offensive • January 1968 • General Westmoreland had told the US public that NV were being “systematically ground down” • USA needed a major victory and anti-war movement was gaining momentum • Tet = Vietnamese New Year • During lull in fighting, 85,000 Viet Cong infiltrated the major cities in SV—attacked Jan 31 • Seized control of key govt buildings and US embassy in Saigon • Saigon briefly fell to North • Took 2 weeks to expel invaders and casualties were high • Westmoreland asked for 200,000 more troops • A turning point…

17. The Tide of War Turns • “The war was fought on many fronts. At that time, the most important one was American public opinion.” General Vo Nguyen Giap (NV) • Americans wondered how a guerilla army “on the verge of collapse” could mount a siege of such magnitude

18. Johnson’s Decision • March 31, 1968 • President Johnson went on national television and announced: "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president," he said on that night in 1968.

19. De-escalation and Vietnamization • Johnson suspended bombing campaign, opening the door to negotiations • Nixon won the November 1968 election (Rep) • Promised to bring “peace with honor” and an end to the war • “Vietnamization”: to turn the war over to the SV Army and withdraw US forces

20. Results • Peace talks dragged on • Nixon authorized heaviest bombing raids of the war as leverage • 1970, he authorized secret operations in Cambodia and Laos to disrupt the NV supply routes on the Ho Chi Minh Trail • Troop withdrawals between 1969-1972 • Last US bombing raid was in Aug 1972 • Paris Peace Accords signed Jan 1973 • Brief ceasefire but fighting began again in 1975; Saigon captured on April 30 • Vietnam reunited under the Hanoi Government • Many refugees fled to escape Communist rule

21. Domestic Impact • Created heightened tensions in an American society that was already under strain • The media’s role in the criticism of government policies increased drastically • Encouraged Americans to reconsider their global image • Emergence of a counter culture that demanded social and political reform • Clear racial and class divisions among those who had to serve and those who escaped the draft • Reputation of the US army in tatters (Mai Lai Massacre-March 1968) • “It seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate….But it is increasingly clear to this reporter that the only rational way out then will be to negotiate, not as victors, but as honorable people who lived up to their pledge to defend democracy, and did the best they could.” …..Walter Cronkite

22. Kent State Shootings • April 30, 1970: Nixon announced invasion and bombing of Cambodia by US Forces • 4 days of protests at Kent State Univ. in Ohio • Ohio National Guard called in May 4—2000 protesters gathered • Tear Gas and Guardsmen with Bayonets • Opened fire—29 of 77 soldiers fired 67 rounds • 9 wounded; 4 killed • 5 days later: 100,000 marched on Washington • A student strike closed over 900 university campuses

23. Tin soldiers and Nixon’s comin’, we’re finally on our own, this summer I hear the drummin’—four dead in Ohio. Gotta get down to it, soldiers are cutting us down, Should have been done long ago, What if you knew her, and found her dead on the ground, How can you run when you know? “Ohio” lyrics by Neil Young, recorded May 15, 1970

24. Overall Impact • 1964-73: 2 million American served while 500,000 resisted • Divisive; optimism and pride shattered • Fall of the entire peninsula to Communism: Vietnam, then Cambodia, then Laos • Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot killed approx. 1.5 million Cambodians • Brought USA and USSR to negotiate SALT • Nixon opened relations with China • Trudeau condemned war and accepted draft dodgers • 3 million civilians died • 2 million military deaths: 1.1 million NV; 220,000 ARVN; 58,000 US; 2,000 SEATO forces

25. Pulitzer Prize Winning Photos of the Vietnam War

26. Thích Quảng Đức’s self immolation on 11 July 1963 in protest of Diem’s administration

28. Combat photography of Horst Faas

31. Kyoichi Sawada’s combat photography of the Vietnam War

34. General Nguyen Ngoc Loan executing a Viet Cong prisoner in Saigon photographed by Eddie Adams during the Tet Offensive

36. Photo of a young girl running following a napalm attack by the South Vietnamese, taken in Trang Bang by AP photographer Nick Ut

38. ‘Burst of Joy’ photo taken of a POW returning home after 5 years in captivity. Photo taken by Slava Veder