What is Research ?

1. What is Research ? “The best way to learneconomics is not to hear about it, or read about it, but to doit. Doing economics means performing economic research.”

2. Research Defined and Described “Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and reliable knowledge” • Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps) • Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines

3. WHAT IS RESEARCH? Any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to add to man’s knowledge of a problem may be regarded as research. (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969 cited in Reber 1995, p.663) The aim, as far as I can see, is the same in all sciences. Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known something previously unknown to human beings. It is to advance human knowledge, to make it more certain or better fitting . . . the aim is, as I have said, discovery. (Elias 1986, p.20)

4. What is Research ? • Research is the search for or creation of (valid) knowledge. • Knowledge is what is believed to be true about something, what is believed to be a correct understanding of something. • Facts are just data. Knowledge is an expert’s best interpretation of facts.

5. What is Research? • Research is the systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested. • Research involves three main stages: planning data collection analysis.

6. What is Research ? • Facts are discovered; knowledge, as an interpretation, is created. • Ethridge (1995) defines research as “the systematic approach to obtaining new and reliable knowledge” (p. 16). • Ethridge (1995) notes that critical thinking is an essential element for research.

7. The Research Process • Originates with a question or problem. • Requires a clear articulation of a goal. • Follows a specific plan of procedure. • Usually divides the principal problems into more manageable sub-problems (hypotheses), which guide the research. • Accepts certain critical assumptions. • Requires collection and interpretation of data to answer original research question.

8. What is Social Research? • It is research involving social scientific methods, theories and concepts, which can enhance our understanding of the social processes and problems encountered by individuals and groups in society. • It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists, political scientists and anthropologists. • It is not just common sense, based on facts without theory, using personal life experience or perpetuating media myths.

9. Social research is a scientific process • It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce knowledge. • It is objective. • It can tell you things you do not expect. • It consists of theory and observation. • Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject matter (humans) are fluid and hard to measure precisely. • It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to exist prior to the theories that explain them.

10. 2 Forms of Social Research • Basic or Pure Research: • aim is to develop a body of general knowledge for the understanding of human social behaviour by means of a combination of empirical enquiry and application of theory. • Applied or Policy Oriented Research: • aim is to provide knowledge and information that can be used to influence social policy.

11. 2 Forms of Social Research: • Basic Research is done by academics. • Applied Research is conducted by applied social researchers employed by sponsors. • Success for basic social researchers is when results are published in a peer reviewed journal and have an impact on the scientific community. • Success for applied social researchers is that their results are used by their sponsors in decision making.

12. Components of Research

13. Theory and Research • Theories can be categorized by: Direction of reasoning (deductive/inductive) Level of social reality that it is explaining (macro/meso/micro) Whether it is formal (general) or substantive (specific).

14. Methodological Approaches: Epistemology There are three main epistemological perspectives: • Positivism • Interested in causes and predicting likelihood of incidences, seeks to explain, creates social ‘facts’. • Phenomenology • Interested in social meanings, seeks to interpret, uses direct involvement, creates data on social interactions. • Critical • Interested in understanding social phenomena in their social context, seeks out structural relationships, data is historical, structural and ideological.

15. Ontological Considerations • Objectivism • Phenomena independent of social actors. • Organisations and culture are said to exist as a tangible object, external to the social actor. • Constructionism • Social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. • Not only produced through social interaction but they are in a constant state of revision.

16. WHY UNDERTAKE RESEARCH? • To investigate some existing situation or problem. • To provide solutions to a problem. • To explore and analyse more general issues. • To construct or create a new procedure or system. • To explain a new phenomenon. • To generate new knowledge. • A combination of two or more of any of the above. • (Hussey and Hussey 1997)

17. Quality research is the lifeblood of any scientific discipline. Without it, disciplines would stagnate, failing to advance past their current limits and understanding. (Wann 1997 p.17)

18. Types of Research Ethridg (1995) distinguishes between two types of research: • Discovery: formulating, finding, and creating new knowledge or information; and • Confirmation: discerning the validity or reliability of knowledge or information.

19. Organization of this lecture Research and Methodology: • Research defined and described • Some classifications of research • Define and discuss methodology • Description of the research process • Discuss creativity and its role in the research process

20. Notice that: “… truth was not used in the definition of research” (p 16) “This concept of truth is outside of the productive realm of thinking by researchers” (p 16)

21. Research is not Accidental discovery : • Accidental discovery may occur in structured research process • Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not previously noticed • May lead to a structured research process to verify or understand the observation

22. Research is not … cont. Data Collection • an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge • collecting reliable data is part of the research process

23. Research is not … cont. Searching out published research results in libraries (or the internet) • This is an important early step of research • The research process always includes synthesis and analysis • But, just reviewing of literature is not research

24. Research is… • Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes • What, how and why things occur • Are there interactions? • A process • Planned and managed – to make the information generated credible • The process is creative • It is circular – always leads to more questions

25. All well designed and conducted research has potential application. • Failure to see applications can be due to: • Users not trained or experienced in the specialized methods of economic research and reasoning • Researchers often do not provide adequate interpretations and guidance on applications of the research • Researchers are responsible to help users understand research implications (How?)

26. Public good • Public research is a public good • May be more rigorous and objective because it is subject to more scrutiny • Private research may also be rigorous • But research on a company’s product may be questioned as biased.

27. Aims of scientific research Increasing and improving our understanding about the world All scientific disciplines proceed along these stages • Describing • Predicting • Determining causes • Explaining

28. Classification of Research • Before classification, we must first define types of research • Different criteria are used to classify research types (All of these are somewhat arbitrary and artificial)

29. Quantitative & Qualitative

30. Main distinctions seen between quantitative and qualitative ‘paradigms’ • - The conventional and constructivist Belief Systems(Adapted from Guba and Lincoln 1989)

31. Main distinctions seen between quantitative and qualitative ‘paradigms’ • - Common dichotomies in methodological literature

33. Basic research methods • Quantitative research (e.g. survey) • Qualitative research (e.g. face-to-face interviews; focus groups; site visits) • Case studies • Participatory research

34. Quantitative research • Involves information or data in the form of numbers • Allows us to measure or to quantify things • Respondents don’t necessarily give numbers as answers - answers are analysed as numbers • Good example of quantitative research is the survey

35. Basic vs Applied Research • Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts and relationships within a discipline or field of study. Develop theories … (examples in economics?) • Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of obtaining information to help resolve a particular problem • The distinction between them is in the application • Basic has little application to real world policy and management but could be done to guide applied research

36. Disciplinary, Subject-matter, and Problem-solving Research (Johnson, 1986)

37. Exploratory research Takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a phenomenon. This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation.

38. Descriptive research Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the issue of what is happening, or how much of it has happened, rather than why it is happening.

39. Explanatory research This type of research is involved in explaining why something happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables.

40. Predictive research Forecasts future phenomena, based on the interpretations suggested by explanatory research.

41. PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without regard for a specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall concepts. Applied research is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a practical question.

42. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESEARCH Primary research Refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to that particular research project, for example through using research methods such as questionnaires or interviews. Secondary research Refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for example census or archive data.

43. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCH Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analysing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data. Empirical research supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical = observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning).

44. HOW TO READ RESEARCH 1. Locate and read a few articles from within a field you are comfortable with. 2. Read studies that are of interest to you. 3. Read the abstract first. 4. Identify the research question and objectives. 5. Why did the researcher(s) choose a particular setting or sample? 6. What were the methods chosen to collect data? 7. What were the most important findings? 8. Do not be over-concerned with statistical analysis. 9. Be critical but objective.

45. Disciplinary • designed to improve a discipline • dwells on theories, fundamental relationships and analytical procedures and techniques • In economics, the intended users are other economists • Provides the conceptual and analytical base for other economic research • It is synergistic and complementary with subject matter and problem-solving research

46. Disciplinary… cont. • Provides the foundations for applied research • Circular as applied research reveals the shortcomings of disciplinary research • Examples of some economic theories? (supply & demand, price elasticity, consumer utility …)

47. Subject-matter research • “research on a subject of interest to a set of decision makers “ (p 22) • Tends to follow subject-matter boundaries within a discipline ( eg. resource economics, production economics, labor economics) • Inherently multidisciplinary, drawing information from many disciplines • eg. consumer economic draws from psychology, natural resource economics from biology, economic policy from political science

48. Subject-matter research … cont. • Provides policy makers with general knowledge to make decisions about various problems. • A primary source of policy applications for economics • Subject-matter research is a cornerstone in economics – it involves direct application of economics to contemporary issues.

49. Problem-solving research • Designed to solve a specific problem for a specific decision maker • Often results in recommendations on decisions or actions • Problem-solving research is holistic – uses all information relevant to the specific problem (while disciplinary research tends to be reductionist) • Disciplinary research is generally the most “durable” (long lasting); problem-solving research the least durable

50. Analytic vs Descriptive Research • Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine, describe, or identify something • The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or information together • Analytic – the attempt to establish why something occurs or how it came to be • All disciplines generally engage in both