Vitamins and Minerals

1. Vitamins and Minerals Pages 260 - 265

3. Why add them? • Provide balance • Bring up to requirements • Add value • Shelf life • How are they added? • Pre weighed for a particular inclusion level • Specialized companies that formulate and mix pre-mixes

4. Minerals • Minerals are inorganic compounds (Ash) • Concentration in plant based feedstuffs • Mineral content of the soil (varies by region) • Mineral content of the water • Mineral content of the fertilizer used • Concentration in an animal's body varies and reflects • Species • Age • Diet

5. SeleniumUnited States Geochemical Survey (USGS) Mineral Resources

6. Animal Composition Calcium = 1.29% Phosphorus = 1.46% Ca:P = 0.88 Calcium = 2.01% Phosphorus = 1.52% Ca:P = 1.19

7. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS • Classifications: macrominerals(major) ormicrominerals (trace). • Macrominerals • Greater than 100 ppm in an animal's body • Usually fed in grams/day or % • Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg and sometimes K and S • Microminerals • Less than 100 ppm in an animal’s body • Usually fed in the ug/d or mg/d range (ppm, mg/kg, ug/g) • Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Se, Zn and Co • Adequate concentrations and balance between minerals are very important. • Excessive amounts of one mineral may interfere with utilization of one or more other minerals.

8. Figure 8.1 Mineral interactions. Minerals: More is not better! • Minerals interact with one another • Even if no interaction occurs, minerals may be outright toxic • Maximal levels are of some concernin many situations • Federal and State laws often require maximum specifications listed on labels

9. Mineral Intake vs. Performance

10. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS • Specialized companies formulate • Most diets are formulated by computer programs designed to minimize cost • This can lead to problems with pre-mixes. • Often nutritionists responsible for formulating mineral supplements will specify which mineral sources are to be used and not allow the software to select minerals based on price. • Pre-mixes need to be formulated based on need in the diet not cost.

11. Mineral Considerations • Chemical form • Affects biological availability • Carbonates, chlorides, oxides, sulfates, chelates, etc. • Physical form • Especially fineness • Influences how well it mixes with other ingredients • Absence of harmful impurities • Requirements • Fast growing animals (swine, poultry) have greater mineral requirements to support bone growth/health

12. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Figure 8.2 Examples of common mineral supplements.

13. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Salt (NaCl) • Common salt, practically pure sodium chloride • Most common mineral supplement • Often used in diets to regulate feed intake • Palatable – animals typically consume enough to meet requirements • Not a problem, given adequate supplies of water • Used as a carrier for other elements or materials a feeder wants animals to consume • Medications (anti-parasitic, anti-bloating, etc…)

14. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Salt (NaCl) • Necessary for water balance in the body; therefore, specifically required for production. • Requirements increase as fluid losses increase, as when sweating or when milk production increases. • Ruminants & horses: 0.5 to 1% salt • Poultry & pigs: 0.25 to 0.5% salt • When salt is mixed in feed, it should be fairlyfine in texture, non-caking, and free flowing. • Salt is often fed ad libitum to ruminants & horses, as their requirements are higher than swine or poultry. • Feeding methods and strategies allow this practice.

15. Salt (NaCl) • Salt may be fed in loose form or as compressed blocks. • Blocks tend to restrict intake compared with loose salt • Convenient to use • More weather resistant than loose salt • Advances in technology

16. Salt (NaCl) • Toxicity concerns • Swine & poultry are much more susceptible • Water restriction increases risk • High salinity water or soil may reduce need to supplementation • Iodized salt • supply a minimum of 0.007% iodine. • Trace-mineralized salt is commercially available • Co, Cu, Fe, I, Mn, & Zn.

17. Calcium and Phosphorus • Most animal diets require supplementation • Skeletal growth, lactation, egg production, muscle contraction. • Many feedstuffs are borderline to deficient in Ca& Por they are not in proper balance (1:1 to 2:1) • Phosphorus can be an issue for high forage fed herbivores. • Calcium can be an issue for high cereal grain fed herbivores. • Improper balance: urinary calculi • Ca Deficiency: milk fever

18. Calcium and Phosphorus • Most non-plant Ca sources are well utilized by most animal species • Although net digestibility may be low, there is little difference between Ca sources • Not the case for P • The usual recommendation is to consider only half of plant P available for non-ruminant species(phytates) • Ruminants utilize phytin P due to production of phytase, which releases P from the phytin complex. • Methods to increase biological digestibility of P in non-ruminants has resulted in commercial availability of phytase products.

19. Calcium and Phosphorus • Marked differences also exist in the biological availability of some inorganic P sources. • Phosphoric acid and the mono-, di-, and tricalcium phosphates are well utilized. • Curacao Island and colloidal (soft) phosphates are utilized less well by most animals. • Some sources from rock phosphates must be defluorinated. • Otherwise, long-term consumption may produce chronic fluorine toxicity.

20. Calcium and Phosphorus • Dicalcium phosphate is one of the more common supplements for both Ca and P. • Processed bones (steamed bone meal, bone ash, etc.) • Chemically treated bones • Adding Ca to phosphoric acid: Di-Ca-P precipitates • Additional Ca & P sources include monocalcium and tricalcium phosphates. • Salts such as calcium oxide • Calcium sulfate (gypsum) is sometimes addedto ruminant rations containing non-protein N to provide needed S. • Calcium carbonate (limestone) – useful when you don’t want more phosphorus in the diet. • Calcium acetate binds P • Calcium citrate can acidify urine • Anionic salts (magnesium sulfate, calcium chloride) make ration more acidic increasing Ca absorption (implication for milk fever)

21. Magnesium • Function • Electrolyte • Major cation cofactor for enzymatic reactions including transfer of P from ATP – ADP – AMP (over 300 rxns) • Mg oxide is most common supplemental form. • 52 – 56% Mg • Magnesium carbonate or sulfate are also used • Sulfate has a laxative effect, more expensive • Dolomite limestone contains about 12% Mg • Deficiency: grass tetany • Fertilize with N or K = worse

22. Potassium • Potassium • Function • acid-base balance and electrical and chemical gradients (interacts with Cl and Na) and nerve function • Deficiency • Typically not an issue in animal diets and often not needed in supplemental form (except lactating dairy cattle or other ruminants fed high concentrate diets) • Not palatable at high levels so voluntary intake will decrease • Forms: chloride, bicarbonate, carbonate, acetate, citrate, sulfate, phosphate, iodide, and gluconate • Higher requirement for ruminants on high-concentrate diets, lactating, water losses, heat stress • Poultry – 1,500 – 5,000 mg/kg • Swine – 1,500 – 3,000 mg/kg • Feedlot cattle – 5 – 7,000 mg/kg • Dairy cattle - 10,000 mg/kg

23. Sulfur • Sulfur • Widely distributed in nature (gypsum, epsom salts) • Many forms: calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, sulfur containing AA’s • Function: sulfur containing compounds (Methionine, cysteine, taurine, thiamin, chondroitin, glutathione) • Deficiency not common if protein is adequate • Toxicity • Principal species of concern: Ruminants (Polioencephalomalacia) • Reacts and forms complexes with other minerals – reducing availability

24. Microminerals(Trace Minerals) • Microminerals most commonly added to animal diets include: • Cobalt; Copper; Iodine; Iron; Manganese; Selenium; Zinc. • Iron (Fe) • Component of hemoglobin and myoglobin, transports oxygen • Considerable iron oxide (rust) is used as a coloring agent in things such as trace-mineralized salt • Other forms: iron carbonate and ferrous sulfate • Deficiency common in piglets – Fe injection at birth

25. Microminerals (Trace Minerals) • Copper (Cu) • is most commonly added as the sulfate • Oxide, carbonate & hydroxide are used sometimes • Component of many enzymes, hemoglobin synthesis, hair pigmentation • Most deficiencies are due to other mineral antagonists (molybdenum, sulfur and iron) • Sheep are extremely sensitive • 10 mg/kg Cu if diet is high in molybdenum and Fe, is tolerated. If Mb and Fe are low, that level will be toxic

26. Trace Minerals • Manganese (Mn) is usually required in poultry diets (high in corn) • Deficiencies on normal diets: cattle, swine, poultry – resulting in bone abnormalities and poor metabolism • Interacts with Ca, P, Fe • Oxide and sulfate are most often used in feeds • Considered one of the least toxic minerals • Cobalt (Co) is required only by rumen microorganisms. • To synthesize vitamin B12 • Most often added as the carbonate or sulfate.

27. Trace Minerals • Iodine • required for synthesis of thyroid hormones to control metabolism • is a very reactive mineral most often fed as iodized salt, but also fed in various other forms (kelp, seaweed – pet diets) • Problematic in all meat diets (pets) • Zinc • is required biochemically in zinc-finger protein domains (DNA/RNA), protein synthesis • frequently needed in most animal diets commonly supplied as Zinc oxide/sulfate. • Selenium is required for at least 12 enzymes • Can be very toxic • Deficiency more common in conjunction with Vitamin E (White muscle disease in ruminants; liver necrosis in other species)

28. Trace Minerals • For trace minerals added to premixes, regulations require the minimum amount to be specified. • Selenium (Se) is the only trace mineral closely regulated in the United States by the FDA. • Feeding of chelated minerals (“organic minerals”) has been promoted to prevent formation of insoluble complexes in the GI tract & reduce amount of a particular mineral required in the diet. • Chelates are compounds with the mineral atom bound to an organic complex. (amino acid, carbohydrate, etc.) • Chelated minerals are commonly used in rations.

30. Mineral Marketing and Propaganda • Bioavailability • Measure of use of mineral to support a physiological function • Little information on how much of the minerals in feeds are truly bioavailable • Will not be 100% • Difficult to study – need to use radioactive isotopes • Significant biological recycling of minerals in the body • Variation among species utilization

31. PROBLEMS WITH COMMERCIALMINERAL SOURCES • Feedstuff variability • Generalized commercial mineral supplements may not be as accurate as they should be • May not meet specific need/deficiency • Livestock feeders must be careful to reasonably ensure mineral needs of their animals are met • Cost of mineral is small in comparison to benefits • Pay particular attention to needs of operation

32. VITAMIN SOURCES • Almost all feedstuffs contain some vitamins, but concentrations in plant or animal tissues varies tremendously. • Plant vitamin variation affected by: • Harvesting, processing, and storage conditions, as well as by plant species and plant part. • Animal vitamin variation affected by: • Age, portion of the body used (liver and kidney are generally good sources of most of the vitamins). • Yeasts and other microorganisms are also excellent sources, particularly of the B vitamins.

33. VITAMIN SOURCES • As a rule, vitamins are not stable • easily destroyed by heat, sunlight, oxidizing conditions, or mold growth. • If question of dietary adequacy arises, it is better to err on the high side than risk a deficiency. • Difficult and very expensive to analyze in diets (HPLC)

34. Optimum Vitamin Nutrition and influencing factors McDowell, 2004

35. Vitamin Considerations • Vitamins likely to be limiting in natural diets: • A, D, E, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, niacin, choline, and cobalamin (B12) • Biotin may also be a problem in swine, poultry, horses, pets (plays a role in hoof/skin health). • Thiamin + vitamin E are major concerns for managed piscivorous species • Vitamin K may be needed because some feed additives may inhibit adequate synthesis • Niacin may aid fat metabolism & ketosis prevention

36. Vitamin Supplementation • Monogastrics • Corn-soy diet generally adequate in E, thiamin, B6, and biotin • Pigs and poultry -supplement Vit A, D, E, K, niacin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, B12 • Layers need higher A, D, E vs. broilers • Ruminants • Vit C, D synthesized, and rumen bacteria make B vitamins • Generally supplement Vit A,E, sometimes D • Pre-ruminant calves would need B vitamins • Start making B vitamins as early as 8 days of age • Concentration of vitamins in colostrum is greater than in milk

37. Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A • Best feed sources of carotenes (provitamin A) are green and yellow plants. • Commercially, dehydrated alfalfa leaf and alfalfa meals or sun-cured alfalfa are typical sources. • Concentrated sources, such as carrot oil or alfalfa extracts, are also used. • Dry products in which carotene has been absorbed on a millfeedproduct • Carotene products in vegetable or animal oils • Cats cannot meet Vitamin A requirement through carotenoids

38. Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A • Vitamin A, itself, is not found in plants, but onlyin animal tissues. • The liver & liver oils and kidneys from fish are good sources (cod liver oil) • Though still used commercially, fish liver oils have been largely replaced by synthetically produced vitamin A, due to cost differences. • For feeds, vitamin A is normally sold in a dry, gelatin-coated form to which antioxidants have been added. • The common chemical form is the ester, usually as vitamin A acetate, propionate, or palmitate.

39. Vitamin A Stirs controversy • Retinylpalmitate – ester of vitamin A combined with the saturated fatty acid palmitic acid from palm oil • Marketing concerns for feed and pre-mix manufacturers due to conservation and environmental concerns • Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

40. Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A • Vitamin A preparations normally are quite stable and can be added to most feed mixes or liquid supplements without much loss of vitaminactivity during normal storage periods. • Grinding a feed makes it susceptible to vitamin loss due to heat involved, and because ground feed is more exposed to oxygen. • It is now a common practice to add antioxidantsto premixes to minimize vitamin destruction. • Supplemental sources are protected by coating them with emulsifying agents, antioxidants, gelatin & sugar.

41. VITAMIN SOURCES Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A • Other factors that may reduce vitamin A content: • Time in storage, temperature, exposure to ultraviolet light, and trace mineral content of the diet. • Moisture or hygroscopic compounds such as choline chloride or urea.

42. VITAMIN SOURCES Fat-Soluble Vitamins - D • Feedstuff sources: sun-cured forages, fish liver oils, and synthetic vitamin D produced by irradiating yeast, plant, or animal sterols with ultraviolet light. • Most commercial feeds have vitamin D added. • Four-footed animals are able to convert vitamin D2 to D3, but poultry utilize D2 very inefficiently. • For poultry, vitamin D is standardized in International Chick Units (preparations containing crystalline D3). • Use of D3 in feeds for animals other than poultry is more efficient, resulting in lower dietary requirements.

43. VITAMIN SOURCES Fat-Soluble Vitamins - D • Vitamin D3 is found naturally in animal products, but vitamin D produced from irradiation of plant or yeast products is in the D2 form. • D-activated animal sterol is available dissolved in oilor absorbed by flour or other fine powders. • Vitamin D2 supplements & irradiated are available. • Vitamin D is relatively stable in mixed feed • Rapid losses can occur when mixed directly with limestone, oxidizing compounds & and some organic ingredients.

44. VITAMIN SOURCES Fat-Soluble Vitamins - E • Vitamin E (primarily a-tocopherol) is present in most common feedstuffs, but found in highest concentrations in the germ or germ oil of plants. • Moderate concentrations in green plants or haysor in dehydrated alfalfa meal. • Synthetically produced concentrates are available. • Vitamin E is an antioxidant; thus, it is lost rapidly in any situation resulting in oxidizing conditions. • Heat, light, high trace mineral content of feed, etc.

45. VITAMIN SOURCES Fat-Soluble Vitamins - K • Vitamin K is widely distributed in green plant material & produced by microbes in the GI tract. • Important in blood-clotting cascade • Many compounds have vitamin K activity, but menadione, a naturally occurring compound,is usually the normal reference standard. • It is fat soluble, stored in relatively high concentrations in animal tissues or in seeds such as soybeans. • Two common water-soluble forms, menadione sodium bisulfite and menadionedimethylpyrimidinolbisulfite, are often used as feed supplements.

46. VITAMIN SOURCES Water-Soluble Vitamins • Animal & fish by-products, green forages, yeast, fermentation products, milk by-products, oilseed meals, and some seed parts are usually good sources of the water-soluble vitamins. • Cereal grain bran layers are fair to moderate sources. • Roots and tubers are poor to fair sources. • Cobalamin (B12) is the only required vitamin that is not found in plants. • It is produced exclusively by microorganisms, so good sources are yeast or similar products. • Animal manures also contain B12.

47. VITAMIN SOURCES Water-Soluble Vitamins • Water-soluble vitamins produced synthetically may be used when especially high vitamin content is needed in some particular situation. • Thiamin hydrochloride; Riboflavin; Nicotinic acid or nicotinamide. • Pyridoxine; Choline chloride; Ascorbic & Pantothenic acid.

48. Examine Your Mineral Tag