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Chromosome Structure and Function in Inheritance: Insights into Mitosis

Explore the intricate world of chromosome biology, from structure to implications in inheritance through mitosis and meiosis. Learn about heterochromatin, euchromatin, and the cell cycle.

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Chromosome Structure and Function in Inheritance: Insights into Mitosis

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  1. Chromosome structure, function and implications for inheritance: mitosis ATGGGCACTGCCACT R r Source: plant-genetics.kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp

  2. A chromosome is a single DNA molecule complexed with histone proteins • DNA is highly compacted: DNA + histone proteins = chromatin • Nucleosome structure • Source: abcam.com

  3. Chromosome numbering/naming • Numbering starts with the “largest” chromosome Source: ucl.ac.uk

  4. Chromosome landmarks • Centromere(s) Source: nature.com

  5. Chromosome landmarks • Telomere(s) Source: conciergemedicinela.com Source: jyi.org

  6. Heterochromatin and euchromatin • The degree of compactness of DNA - implications for degree of gene expression Duggan, N. M. & Tang, Z. I. (2010) The Formation of Heterochromatin.  Nature Education 3(9):5

  7. Heterochromatin and euchromatin • Heterochromatin: highly compact, inaccessible for transcription, and less likely to contain highly expressed genes • Constitutive: • ~ Always compact • Facultative: • varying degrees of compactness depending on individual, developmental stage • Implications for epigenetics • Euchromatin: relaxed, accessible, and more likely to contain expressed genes

  8. Mitosis and Meiosis • Mitosis: 2n 2n • Meiosis 2n n • Mitosis: 2 identical daughter cells • Meiosis: 4 daughter cells, which may be genetically different • Mitosis: zygote until death • Meiosis: specialized cells V v V V V v V v v v V v Mitosis Meiosis

  9. The cell cycle • G1: RNA and protein synthesis, but no DNA replication • S: DNA synthesis. The total DNA content goes from 2n to 4n • G2: After DNA synthesis and before mitosis. At this point a diploid cell contains two complete diploid sets of chromosomes • M: Mitosis 

  10. Mitosis

  11. Mitosis: Example: Maize; 2n=2x=20Prophase: Chromatin contracts. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. One is "original" chromosome, other is copy made during S phase. Chromatids held together at centromere. At late Prophase, attachment of spindle fibers to centromeric region and dissolution of nuclear membrane. Continued contraction of paired chromatids. 20 sets of 2 sister chromatids = 40 chromatids. • Metaphase:Orientation of paired chromatids on Metaphase "plate". 20 sets of sister chromatids aligned on plate = 40 chromatids.

  12. Mitosis: Example: Maize; 2n=2x=20Anaphase: Sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles. Separation of sister chromatids accomplishes the equal distribution of chromosomal material. 20chromatids migrate to each pole.  • Telophase: Single chromatids, or at this point, chromosomes, return to the relaxed Interphase state. Cytokinesis divides original cell into two daughter cells. Two cells, each with 10 pairs of chromosomes = 20 chromosomes per cell.  Maize :  2n=2x=20

  13. Telomere shortening during mitosis • Telomeres: Repetitive DNA sequences at ends of chromosomes. Each time the cell divides, the telomere shortens.  Eventually, the chromosomes become "so frayed that the cell senesces". In some cells- eggs, sperm, and cancer cells - an enzyme known as telomerase allows for "reconstruction" of the telomere, thus prolonging cell life.   

  14. Development of the male gametophyte • Pollen mother cell (PMC)  • PMC undergoes meiosis • Meiosis gives a tetrad of microspores Note, this is different than ♀

  15. Development of the female gametophyte • Megaspore mother cell (MMC)  • MMC undergoes meiosis • Of 4 megaspores produced 1 survives (most species) • Three post-meiotic mitoses 1 2 3

  16. Meiosis 1 Prophase (5 stages) Leptonema: Longitudinal duality of chromosomes not discernible. Zygonema: Pairing of homologous chromosomes. Formation of synaptonemal complex and zygotene DNA synthesis. Pachynema: Pairing persists: synaptonemal complex + crossovers. Bivalent = 2 homologous chromosomes = 2 sets of 2 chromatids. Crossing over occurs (chiasma; chiasmata). Diplonema: Synaptonemal complex dissolves; visualize longitudinal duality. Diakinesis: Continued bivalent contraction. 

  17. Meiosis 1 • Metaphase I: • Bivalents  appear on the Metaphase plate.The random alignment of non-homologous chromosomes is the basis of independent assortment. • Anaphase I: • The physical separation of homologous chromosomes is the basis of segregation. • Telophase I. • Each pole receives one-half of the original chromosome number of the meiocyte, i.e. one set of chromosomes in the case of diploidy.

  18. Meiosis 2 • Prophase II. Chromatin condensation • Metaphase II. Chromosomes align on Metaphase plate • Anaphase II. Sister chromatids go to opposite poles • Telophase II. Cytokinesis: Tetrad

  19. Key differences between mitosis and meiosis • Meiosis: occurs in specialized cells (megaspore mother cell (MMC); pollen mother cell (PMC) • Mitosis: occurs from the zygote stage onward through the life of the organism V v V V V v V v v v V v

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