Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar

1. Atlantic SalmonSalmo salar A species indicator?

2. Atlantic salmon Life Cycle

3. Wild Atlantic Salmon migration routes Source: “The Wild Atlantic Salmon-State of the Population in North America 2000 (www.asf.ca)

4. Salmon spawn any time between mid October to mid or late November. • Each female can produce between 1500-1800 eggs/kg/body weight • Once the female has located a site, she prepares a redd (nest).

5. Introduction • The Atlantic salmon is born in fresh water & remains there until it undergoes a physiological transformation allowing it to tolerate salt water.

6. It is during the smolt stage that the salmon will leave the fresh water river & migrate to the salt water sea. The smolt stage would be the equivalent of our “adolescent” stage of development. • The ALEVINS (hatchlings or fry) & PARR (yolk sac is gone & actively feeding & free swimming) will stay in the freshwater system for usually 2-3 years before reaching the SMOLT stage.

7. After 1-3 years at sea, the salmon returns to its river of origin (where it was born!) to spawn (reproduce). They are now called grilse. Others will remain in salt water to overwinter another season & will return to fresh water to spawn as adult salmon. (>63 cm) The soils & vegetation along the streams & rivers play an important role in protecting & maintaining salmon habitat.

8. The vegetation both nourishes the river ecosystem & protects it by stabilizing the riverbanks, preventing them from collapsing & silting the river. A good spawning site will have coarse, loose gravel 3-7 cm thick, a moderately strong current to prevent eggs from being smothered by settling silt, & well-oxygenated water.

9. # of Fish Time (year – 19??)

10. Atlantic salmon situation in Nova Scotia?? • 2002 FINAL Cumulative counts of MSW salmon on rivers of the Nova Scotia portion of the Maritimes Region, as of November 15, 2002 (Click here to learn more)

11. Siltation Altering/diverting Water Flow Erecting Dams or Barriers Altering/destroying Riverside Vegetation Altering/destroying Riverbanks Harvesting Illegal Harvesting Logging Aquaculture At-Sea mortality Reasons for Species Loss

12. In 1999, 70 000 tons of domestic salmon were raised in Canada Presently approx 30 companies operating more than 200 salmon farms on both coasts. (salmon & rainbow trout are preferred choice) Slightly more than 33% of Canada’s domestic salmon output comes from the Maritimes. 90% of Maritime production comes from Passamaquoddy Bay & Grand Manan areas 10% from NS & NFLD Aquaculture now accounts for more than 25% of all fish consumed by humans worldwide. Salmon farming is the fastest growing sector in world aquaculture. General Facts about Aquaculture

13. Dangers Presented by Aquaculture • In 1997 approx. 300 000 Atlantic salmon were accidently released into Puget Sound, BC. • In Norway, approx. 1.3 million salmon escape from farms every year (~33% of the salmon spawning in coastal rivers in Norway are ESCAPED domestic salmon!) • There are areas in Norway where escaped domestic salmon have completely engulfed the historic range of wild salmon.

14. Selectively bred to grow faster (10X faster); tend to be larger & more aggressive Scientists claim that a genetically engineered salmon could be grown up to 4 m in length & weigh >80kg! Atlantic salmon fare better in captivity than Pacific salmon Domestic salmon now outnumber wild salmon by a factor of 10 to 1 Do domestic salmon fall under the category of GM foods? Domestic vs. Wild

15. Current salmon farming practices involve open netcages like these that allow fish to escape & pollution to flow freely into the surrounding water.

16. Problems associated with salmon farming… • Sewage • Drugs • Escapees • Net loss

17. Waste accumulates beneath salmon farms, smothering the ocean bottom and choking out life.

18. Organic Main source is fish excrement & uneaten food The accumulated waste can smother the organisms and set up anoxic (oxygen depleted) conditions in the seabed sediment. Nutrient-loading (N & P) Chemical Antibiotics Pesticides feed additives paints used on netcages and boats to prevent marine growth (antifouling paints) disinfectants. Salmon farm pollution…

19. Drugs used in the salmon farming industry… • A variety of chemicals, including antibiotics, pesticides and fungicides are used on salmon farms to treat disease outbreaks. • These drugs are often administered to the fish through their feed. • Since salmon are mostly raised in open marine netcages, most of the drug, or its metabolic byproducts, end up in the marine environment through uneaten feed or the salmon's excrements. • The distribution and environmental impact of these chemicals is a cause of great concern.

20. Escaping farmed salmon pose risks… • Escaped salmon can be carriers of disease and parasites, which pose a threat to wild salmon populations. • When the species farmed is native to an area there may still be an impact from escaped farmed salmon breeding with populations of wild salmon that are genetically adapted to specific streams. • In British Columbia there is a greater danger arising from the fact that most of the salmon farmed are Atlantic salmon. Evidence exists that escaped Atlantic salmon can breed in BC's wild streams. The potential negative consequences of this could be dramatic. • average “escapees” in BC is ~90,000 per year for the period 1990-2000.

21. Net loss of wild fish to produce farmed salmon… • Salmon farming proponents often point out that, since the wild fisheries are collapsing, farming the oceans is necessary to feed a hungry world • They claim that their industry can supply food while taking pressure off ocean resources. But it isn't that straightforward. • The impact of aquaculture (farming of a seafood species) varies, depending on what species is farmed and what method is used. • With regard to taking pressure off ocean resources, a key factor is whether the species being farmed is carnivorous or not. • A total of 2.7-3.5 tonnes of wild fish are used to make 1 tonne of farmed salmon! • The consumption of 6.2 tonnes of wild fish for each tonne of salmon produced not only means less food for humans, but also for the many ocean species that rely on these fish as part of their food chain. Currently, the continued expansion of salmon farming is not sustainable.

22. Possible Remedies? • Commitment on the part of Federal & Provincial Governments • It has been suggested that salmon farms be located entirely within land-based pens fed by salt water to create a closed containment system (aquaculture industry opposed this measure because of the costs associated with creating the pens) • Sterile, all-female strains of domestic salmon could reduce threats to wild salmon from cross- breeding with farm escapees. • “it is only a matter of time before a suitable seed-based food concentrate can be used to replace marine protein for feeding domestic salmon” (DFO)

23. A number of images in this presentation are from theAtlantic Salmon Federationwebsite… David Suzuki Foundation News & Issues concerning Aquaculture Facts are located at the Nova Scotia Salmon Association Sources…

24. Siltation • Occurs when a riverbed is covered with fine particles. • Destroys spawning areas & smothers salmon eggs. • Can cause gill abrasion • Makes feeding more difficult because the fish can’t see their food. Caused by… • poor or improper road construction • Irresponsible logging practices • All-terrain vehicles (ATV’s) in riverbeds

25. Altering/diverting Water Flow • Water flow is either too high or too low for the salmon • Affects spawning & survival rates

26. Erecting Dams or Barriers • Creates barriers for migrating salmon • Destroys spawning beds • Example: Kejimkujik National Park (dam erected in the 1940’s which affected the rivers that drained this park)

27. Altering/destroying Riverside Vegetation • Reduces food supply to the river ecosystem • Causes siltation

28. Altering/destroying Riverbanks • Causes flooding…which leads to.. • SILTATION!

29. Harvesting • Native bands that use salmon for food • The importance of fishing to Aboriginal communities is recognized by DFO & given first priority AFTER conservation. • Conne River Mi’kmaq are the only band in NFLD with a recognized food fishery. • Innu Nation & Labrador Inuit Association have a food fishery in Labrador.

30. Illegal Harvesting • Loss of fish stock due to poaching.

31. Logging • Aggravates flooding & causes flash floods & siltation of water bodies. • Really impacts on eggs & juveniles. • Use of insecticides & herbicides can also be a problem

32. Aquaculture • Declining commercial salmon industry has placed an emphasis on raising Atlantic salmon in artificial environments. • A salmonid is a member of the salmon family which includes salmon, trout, and char. • New Brunswick, Newfoundland & Labrador are BIG players on the East coast. • If farmed salmon (domestic salmon) escape they can introduce new disease & new genes into a watershed producing offspring that are less suitable for survival. • “Escapees” may also compete for same food resources.

33. At-Sea mortality • A result of …. • by-catch • Global climate change (salinity & temperature) • Seal predation (suspected but unproven)