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2. Processes and Interactions

2. Processes and Interactions. 2.1 The Process Notion 2.2 Defining and Instantiating Processes Precedence Relations Implicit Process Creation Dynamic Creation With fork And join Explicit Process Declarations 2.3 Basic Process Interactions Competition: The Critical Section Problem

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2. Processes and Interactions

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  1. 2. Processes and Interactions 2.1 The Process Notion 2.2 Defining and Instantiating Processes • Precedence Relations • Implicit Process Creation • Dynamic Creation With fork And join • Explicit Process Declarations 2.3 Basic Process Interactions • Competition: The Critical Section Problem • Cooperation 2.4 Semaphores • Semaphore Operations and Data • Mutual Exclusion • Producer/Consumer Situations 2.5 Event Synchronization Spring, 2013

  2. Processes • A process is the activity of executing a program on a CPU. Also, called a task. • Conceptually… • Each process has its own CPU • Processes are running concurrently • Physical concurrency = parallelismThis requires multiple CPUs • Logical concurrency = time-shared CPU • Processes cooperate (shared memory, messages, synchronization) • Processes compete for resources Spring, 2013

  3. Advantages of Process Structure • Hardware-independent solutions • Processes cooperate and compete correctly, regardless of the number of CPUs • Structuring mechanism • Tasks are isolated with well-defined interfaces Spring, 2013

  4. Defining/Instantiating Processes • Need to • Define what each process does • Specify precedence relations: when processes start executing and stop executing, relative to each other • Create processes Spring, 2013

  5. Specifying precedence relations • Process-flow graphs (unrestricted) • Properly nested expressions/graphs (also known as series-parallel graphs) Spring, 2013

  6. Process flow graphs • Directed graphs • Edges represent processes • Vertices represent initiation, termination of processes Spring, 2013

  7. Examples of Precedence Relationships(Process Flow Graphs) Figure 2-1 Spring, 2013

  8. Process flow graphs (a + b) * (c + d) - (e / f) gives rise to Figure 2-2 Spring, 2013

  9. (Unrestricted) Process flow graphs • Any directed acylic graph (DAG) corresponds to an unrestricted process flow graph, and conversely • May be too general (like unrestricted goto in sequential programming) Spring, 2013

  10. Properly nested expressions • Two primitives, which can be nested: • Serial execution • Expressed as S(p1, p2, …) • Execute p1, then p2, then … • Parallel execution • Expressed as P(p1, p2, …) • Concurrently execute p1, p2, • A graph is properly nested if it corresponds to a properly nested expression Spring, 2013

  11. Examples of Precedence Relationships(Process Flow Graphs) Figure 2-1 Spring, 2013

  12. Properly nested process flow graphs • (c) corresponds to the properly nested expression • S(p1, P(p2, S(p3, P(p4, p5)), p6), P(p7, p8)) • (d) is not properly nested • (proof: text, page 44) Spring, 2013

  13. Process Creation • Implicit process creation • cobegin // coend, • forall statement • Explicit process creation • fork/join • Explicit process declarations/classes Spring, 2013

  14. Implicit Process Creation • Processes are created dynamically using language constructs. • Process is not explicitly declared or initiated • cobegin/coend statement • Data parallelism: forall statement Spring, 2013

  15. Cobegin/coend statement • syntax: cobegin C1 // C2 // … // Cn coend • meaning: • All Ci may proceed concurrently • When all of the Ci’s terminate, the statement following the cobegin/coend can proceed • cobegin/coend statements have the same expressive power as S/P notation • S(a,b)  a; b (sequential execution by default) • P(a,b)  cobegin a // b coend Spring, 2013

  16. cobegin/coend example cobegin Time_Date // Mail // { Edit; cobegin { Compile; Load; Execute} // { Edit; cobegin Print // Web coend} coend } coend Figure 2-4 Spring, 2013

  17. Data parallelism • Same code is applied to different data • The forall statement • syntax: forall (parameters) statements • Meaning: • Parameters specify set of data items • Statements are executed for each item concurrently Spring, 2013

  18. Example of forall statement • Example: Matrix Multiply forall ( i:1..n, j:1..m ) { A[i][j] = 0; for ( k=1; k<=r; ++k ) A[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][k]*C[k][j]; } • Each inner product is computed sequentially • All inner products are computed in parallel Spring, 2013

  19. Explicit Process Creation • Usingfork/join • Explicit process declarations/classes Spring, 2013

  20. Explicit program creation: fork/join • cobegin/coend are limited to properly nested graphs • forall is limited to data parallelism • fork/join can express arbitrary functional parallelism (any process flow graph) Spring, 2013

  21. The fork and join primitives • Syntax: fork xMeaning: create new process that begins executing at label x • Syntax: join t,yMeaning: t = t–1; if (t==0) goto y; The operation must be indivisible. (Why?) Spring, 2013

  22. fork / join example • Example: Graph in Figure 2-1(d) t1 = 2; t2 = 3; p1; fork L2; fork L5; fork L7; quit; L2: p2; fork L3; fork L4; quit; L5: p5; join t1,L6; quit; L7: p7; join t2,L8; quit; L4: p4; join t1,L6; quit; L3: p3; join t2,L8; quit; L6: p6; join t2,L8; quit; L8: p8; quit; Spring, 2013

  23. The Unix forkstatement • procid = fork() • Replicates calling process • Parent and child are identical except for the value of procid • Use procid to diverge parent and child: if (procid==0)do_child_processing else do_parent_processing Spring, 2013

  24. Explicit Process Declarations • Designate piece of code as a unit of execution • Facilitates program structuring • Instantiate: • Statically (like cobegin) or • Dynamically (like fork) Spring, 2013

  25. Explicit Process Declarations process p process p1 declarations_for_p1 begin ... end process type p2 declarations_for_p2 begin ... end begin ... q = new p2; ... end Spring, 2013

  26. Thread creation in Java • Define a runnable class Class MyRunnable implements runnable { … run() {…} } • Instantiate the runnable, instantiate and start a thread that runs the runnable Runnable r = new MyRunnable(); Thread t = new Thread(r); t.start(); Spring, 2013

  27. Process Interactions • Competition/Mutual Exclusion • Example: Two processes both want to access the same resource. • Cooperation • Example: Producer  Buffer  Consumer Spring, 2013

  28. Process Interactions • Competition: The Critical Section Problem x = 0; cobegin p1: … x = x + 1; … // p2: … x = x + 1; … Coend • After both processes execute , we should have x=2 Spring, 2013

  29. The Critical Section Problem • Interleaved execution (due to parallel processing or context switching) p1: R1 = x; p2: … R2 = x; R1 = R1 + 1; R2 = R2 + 1; x = R1 ; … x = R2; • x has only been incremented once. The first update (x=R1) is lost. Spring, 2013

  30. The Critical Section Problem • Problem statement: cobegin p1: while(1) {CS_1; program_1;} // p2: while(1) {CS_2; program_2;} // ... // pn: while(1) {CS_n; program_n;} coend • Guarantee mutual exclusion: At any time,at most one process should be executing within its critical section (Cs_i). Spring, 2013

  31. The Critical Section Problem In addition to mutual exclusion, prevent mutual blocking: 1. Process outside of its CS must not prevent other processes from entering its CS. (No “dog in manger”) 2. Process must not be able to repeatedly reenter its CS and starve other processes (fairness) 3. Processes must not block each other forever (no deadlock) 4. Processes must not repeatedly yield to each other (“after you”--“after you”) (no livelock) Spring, 2013

  32. The Critical Section Problem • Solving the problem is subtle • We will examine a few incorrect solutions before describing a correct one: Peterson’s algorithm Spring, 2013

  33. Algorithm 1 • Use a single turnvariable: int turn = 1; cobegin p1: while (1) { while (turn != 1); /*wait*/ CS_1; turn = 2; program_1; } // p2: while (1) { while (turn != 2); /*wait*/ CS_2; turn = 1; program_2; } coend • Violates blocking requirement (1), “dog in manger” Spring, 2013

  34. Algorithm 2 • Use two variables. c1=1 when p1 wants to enter its CS. c2=1 when p2 wants to enter its CS. int c1 = 0, c2 = 0; cobegin p1: while (1) { c1 = 1; while (c2); /*wait*/ CS_1; c1 = 0; program_1; } // p2: while (1) { c2 = 1; while (c1); /*wait*/ CS_2; c2 = 0; program_2; } coend • Violates blocking requirement (3), deadlock. Processes may wait forever. Spring, 2013

  35. Algorithm 3 • Like #2, but reset intent variables (c1 and c2) each time: int c1 = 0, c2 = 0; cobegin p1: while (1) { c1 = 1; if (c2) c1 = 0; //go back, try again else {CS_1; c1 = 0; program_1} } // p2: while (1) { c2 = 1; if (c1) c2 = 0; //go back, try again else {CS_2; c2 = 0; program_2} } coend • Violates blocking requirements (2) and (4), fairness and livelock Spring, 2013

  36. Peterson’s algorithm • Processes indicate intent to enter CS as in #2 and #3 (using c1 and c2 variables) • After a process indicates its intent to enter, it (politely) tells the other process that it will wait (using the willWait variable) • It then waits until one of the following two conditions is true: • The other process is not trying to enter; or • The other process has said that it will wait (by changing the value of the willWait variable.) Spring, 2013

  37. Peterson’s Algorithm int c1 = 0, c2 = 0, willWait; cobegin p1: while (1) { c1 = 1; willWait = 1; while (c2 && (willWait==1)); /*wait*/ CS_1; c1 = 0; program_1; } // p2: while (1) { c2 = 1; willWait = 2; while (c1 && (willWait==2)); /*wait*/ CS_2; c2 = 0; program_2; } coend • Guarantees mutual exclusion and no blocking • Assumes there are only 2 processes Spring, 2013

  38. Another algorithm for the critical section problem: the Bakery Algorithm Based on “taking a number” as in a bakery or post office • Process chooses a number larger than the number held by all other processes • Process waits until the number it holds is smaller than the number held by any other process trying to get in to the critical section Spring, 2013

  39. Code for Bakery Algorithm (First cut) int number[n]; //shared array. All entries initially set to 0 //Code for process i. Variables j and x are local (non-shared) variables while(1) { program_i // Step 1: choose a number x = 0; for (j=0; j < n; j++) if (j != i) x = max(x,number[j]); number[i] = x + 1; // Step 2: wait until the chosen number is the smallest outstanding number for (j=0; j < n; j++) if (j != i) wait until ((number[j] == 0) or (number[i] < number[j])) CS_i number[i] = 0; } Spring, 2013

  40. Bakery algorithm, continued • Complication: there could be ties in step 1. This would cause a deadlock (why?) • Solution: if two processes pick the same number, give priority to the process with the lower process number. Spring, 2013

  41. Correct code for Bakery Algorithm int number[n]; //shared array. All entries initially set to 0 //Code for process i. Variables j and x are local (non-shared) variables while(1) { program_i // Step 1: choose a number x = 0; for (j=0; j < n; j++) if (j != i) x = max(x,number[j]); number[i] = x + 1; // Step 2: wait until the chosen number is the smallest outstanding number for (j=0; j < n; j++) if (j != i) wait until ((number[j] == 0) or (number[i] < number[j]) or ((number[i] = number[j]) and (i < j))) CS_i number[i] = 0; } Spring, 2013

  42. Software solutions to Critical Section problem • Drawbacks • Difficult to program and to verify • Processes loop while waiting (busy-wait). Wastes CPU time. • Applicable to only to critical section problem: (competition for a resource). Does not address cooperation among processes. • Alternative solution: • special programming constructs (semaphores, events, monitors, …) Spring, 2013

  43. Semaphores • A semaphores is a nonnegative integer • OperationsP and Vare defined on s • Semantics: P(s): if s>0, decrement sand proceed; else wait until s>0 and then decrement sand proceed V(s): increment s by 1 • Equivalent Semantics: P(s): while (s<1)/*wait*/; s=s-1 V(s): s=s+1; • The operationsP and Vare atomic (indivisible) operations Spring, 2013

  44. Notes on semaphores • Invented by Dijkstra • As we will see in Chapter 4, the waiting in the P operation can be implemented by • Blocking the process, or • Busy-waiting • Etymology: • P(s), often written Wait(s); think “Pause”: “P” from “passaren” (“pass” in Dutch) or from “prolagan,” combining “proberen” (“try”) and “verlagen” (“decrease”). • V(s), often written Signal(s):think of the “V for Victory” 2-finger salute:“V” from “vrigeven” (“release”) or “verhogen” (“increase”). Spring, 2013

  45. Mutual Exclusion w/ Semaphores semaphore mutex = 1; cobegin p1: while (1) { P(mutex); CS1;V(mutex);program1;} // p2: while (1) { P(mutex);CS2;V(mutex);program2;} // ... // pn: while (1) { P(mutex);CSn;V(mutex);programn;} coend; Spring, 2013

  46. Cooperation • Cooperating processes must also synchronize • Example: P1 waits for a signal from P2 before P1 proceeds. • Classic generic scenario: Producer  Buffer  Consumer Spring, 2013

  47. Signal/Wait with Semaphores semaphore s = 0; cobegin p1: ... P(s); /* wait for signal */ ... // p2: ... V(s); /* send signal */ ... ... coend; Spring, 2013

  48. Bounded Buffer Problem semaphore e = n, f = 0, b = 1; cobegin Producer: while (1) { Produce_next_record; P(e); P(b); Add_to_buf; V(b); V(f); } // Consumer: while (1) { P(f); P(b); Take_from_buf; V(b); V(e); Process_record; } coend Spring, 2013

  49. Events • An event designates a change in the system state that is of interest to a process • Usually triggers some action • Usually considered to take no time • Principally generated through interrupts and traps (end of an I/O operation, expiration of a timer, machine error, invalid address…) • Also can be used for process interaction • Can be synchronous or asynchronous Spring, 2013

  50. Synchronous Events • Process explicitly waits for occurrence of a specific event or set of events generated by another process • Constructs: • Ways to define events • E.post (generate an event) • E.wait (wait until event is posted) • Can be implemented with semaphores • Can be “memoryless” (posted event disappears if no process is waiting). Spring, 2013

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