OCEANOGRAFIA 2

1. OCEANOGRAFIA 2 Anno Accademico 2017-2018 Docente: Renzo Mosetti rmosetti@inogs.it

2. History of OceanographyCapitolo 2 Steward.

3. Why study historic oceanography? Connected to the world’s overall history Commerce, warfare, resources, weather The oceans have shaped humanity’s past

4. Why study Oceanographic History? Understand how and why people apply marine sciences today Oceanography’s history is about people, not just oceans and test tubes.

5. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. to 800 A.D.) Not sure when ocean voyages actually began Fish hooks and spears dated approximately 5000 B.C. Earliest recorded sea voyage – Egyptians about 3200 B.C.

6. Phoenician Explorations Most important early Western seafarers Motivated by trade, Phoenicians traveled incredible distances Established first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean and as far north as Great Britain

7. Phoenician Navigation Stayed within sight of land Traveled at night – steered by observing constellations and the North Star. In the ancient world, the North Star was called the Phoenician Star

8. Polynesian Exploration Between 2000 and 500 B.C. Often traveled thousands of kilometers across open ocean Open canoes cut from tree trunks Developed stick maps with ocean currents Settled most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean hundreds of years before Europeans reached Pacific Ocean

9. Polynesian Significance Earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean seafaring beyond sight of land

10. Greek Exploration First who used mathematical principles and developed sophisticated maps for seafaring Pytheas – Greek explorer, noted that he could predict tides in Atlantic based on phases of moon He also measured angle between horizon and the North Star to determine position – improved navigation

11. Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C) 2 major contributions that furthered Pytheas’ work Calculated Earth’s Circumference ~40,000 km Invented first latitude/longitude system

12. Map of World – According to Eratosthenes

13. Ptolemy (100-168 A.D.) Created map of Earth that showed a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper. Produced first world atlas Improved longitude/latitude system System still used today

14. Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)

15. Vikings (790 A.D. to 1100) Vikings of Scandinavia were active explorers during The 9th century Discovered Iceland and Greenland Leif Eriksson – son of Eric The Red, set off in search of timber for Greenland Colony and discovered North America (Newfoundland, Canada)

16. Chinese Exploration The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent large convoys of ships out on missions in which seven voyages were made There ships were more technologically advanced than anything in Europe, consisting of five masts and magnetic compasses and navigational charts The Ming Dynasty reached as far as Africa

17. European Exploration and the Renaissance Prince Henry the navigator, (1420’s) founded first school of navigation Christopher Columbus (1490’s) was attempting to find a west-ward route to India when he reached the Bahama Islands Ferdinand Magellan (1520) led the expedition that first circumnavigated the word; he was killed in the Philippines

18. Magellan’s Circumnavigation of World

19. The Beginning of Ocean Science

20. 18th Century Previous exploration driven by military, trade, or conquest objectives Royal Navy of Britain launched voyages with objectives of exploration, mapping and projecting British presence around the world

21. Cook’s Expedition(1768 – 1779) Made 1st accurate maps of many regions in the ocean w/ new invention Chronometer invented by John Harrison Chronometer is a time piece capable of keeping accurate time aboard ship at sea

22. Ben Franklin and the Gulf Stream (1777) Noted northerly routed ship from Europe took longer than ships that came by a longer more southerly route Learned about gulf stream from nephew, who gave his uncle a chart Franklin had the chart printed and distributed to the captains of mail ships. They shortened their inbound voyages by avoiding the current and they shortened their outbound voyages by using the current.

23. Father of Oceanography… Matthew Maury Matthew Maury, in charge of the Depot of Naval charts and instruments. Organized first international meteorological conference to establish uniform methods Published a summarized version of data in first Oceanographic textbook in 1855

24. Darwin, Coral Reefs and Biological Evolution From 1831 to 1836 a naturalist for the HMS Beagle circumnavigated the southern oceans and oceanic islands. Darwin observed birds and other organisms on isolated islands, most of his research took place in the Galapagos Islands. In 1859, his observations were published in the book “On the origin of Species”.

25. The Rosses, Edward Forbes, and life in the deep sea John Ross took samples and animals in Baffin bay (Canada) Later James Ross took samples from Antarctic ocean bottom at 4.3 Miles John Ross and James Ross found that there are some bottom dwelling creatures in Baffin Bay and Antarctic Ocean. They discovered that deep Atlantic is uniformly cold. Forbes – Oceans divided into life-depth zones; concluded that ocean life decrease as depth increases. This contrasted with Rosses finings and created dispute for decades in Britain.

26. The Ocean as Laboratory : The Challenger Expedition (1872-1876) The expedition covered 79,178 miles. Directed by C. Wyville Thompson 2 contributions: Discovery and classification of 4,717 new marine species Measurement of record water depth at the Mariana Trench of 26,847 feet.

27. Alexander Agassiz(1836-1919) multimillionaire benefactor to oceanography, especially in the U.S. 1st to use steel cables for deep sea dredging

28. Victor Henson and Marine Ecology Victor Henson solved the problem about population fluctuations in commercial fish. Coined the term plankton He found that cold water is more nutrient rich, leading to more plankton, and a larger fish population.

29. Polar oceanography begins with the voyage of the Fram Fridtjof Nansen set out with a crew of 13 on a boat called Fram to explore the Artic sea. His boat became frozen in ice and drifted for 3 years His drift proved that there was no continent in the Artic sea.

30. Fridtjof Nansen 1861-1930 • Tested his ideas about the direction of ice drift • Froze a vessel in the polar ice pack and drifted with it to reach the North Pole • His vessel was called the Fram • The ship remained in the ice for 35 months • Measurements showed that the Arctic was a deep ocean basin, not a shallow sea • Water and air temperatures were recorded • Plankton numbers were measured

32. Il periodo “classico” delle ricerche oceanografiche in Adriatico *Accademia nautica di Fiume: Wolf e Luksch Campagne in Adriatico con le navi: NAUTILUS (1874); DELI (1875, 1876, 1877); HERTHA (1880) *Regio Comitato Talassografico Italiano fondato nel 1909. campagne con le navi MONTEBELLO e CICLOPE *Permanente Internationale Kommission fur Erforschung der Adria – 1910 NAJADE (12 campagne); CICLOPE (10 campagne)

33. Da Wolf e Luksch (1881, 1887)

34. La sede triestina di ISMAR, fino al 2002 denominata Istituto Sperimentale Talassografico "Francesco Vercelli" , è una tra le più antiche Istituzioni italiane che si siano occupate di ricerche oceanografiche e meteomarine. Le sue origini risalgono al 1841, anno in cui iniziarono a Trieste le osservazioni meteorologiche sistematiche presso l'allora Osservatorio Marittimo della Imperial Regia Accademia di Commercio e Nautica, Istituzione governativa dell'Impero Austro-Ungarico. Per questo motivo l'archivio storico sull'Adriatico, ed in particolare sul Golfo di Trieste, comprende anche dati risalenti alla fine del secolo XIX. Dopo la prima guerra mondiale ed il congiungimento di Trieste all'Italia, detta Istituzione fu assegnata prima al Regio Comitato Talassografico Italiano, poi al Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (C.N.R.) e successivamente al Ministero dell'Agricoltura e Foreste, per tornare nuovamente nel 1985 al C.N.R.E’ presente una ricca ed aggiornata biblioteca di notevole specializzazione che annovera circa 11.000 ingressi, di cui 3900 di libri ed il rimanente in collane di riviste, alcune delle quali a partire dall'inizio del 1900. La Sezione possiede inoltre una piccola collezione di strumenti meteo-marini ed oceanografici d'interesse storico, fra i quali alcuni reperti appartenuti alla nave "Elettra" di Guglielmo Marconi.

36. La biologia marina • Nel 1874 fu fondata laSocietà Adriatica di Scienze naturali; • Nel 1875 viene inaugurata a Trieste la “Imperial Regia Stazione Didattica e di osservazione zoologica, sede distaccata dell’Università di Vienna” (quasi coeva della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli fondata nel 1874 da Anton Dhorn);

39. UNA CURIOSITA’ Sigmund Freuddopo la laurea in medicina si recò in Inghilterra e, successivamente, lavorò in un laboratorio di zoologia diretto da Carl Friedrich Claus a Vienna e nella Stazione Zoologica di Trieste dove si occupò di anatomia e fisiologia animale arrivando a confermare l'esistenza dei testicoli nel maschio dell'anguilla.

40. Twentieth century oceanography

41. Voyage of the Meteor First drilling ship Ship came from Germany Set the standard for multidisciplinary studies of the Ocean Mapped the ocean bottom by echo sounding Meteor sailed for 25 months

42. Oceanography gets institutionalized Musée océanographic – Europe Scripps institution of Oceanography (1st institute in U.S.) – California Woods Hole Ocean. Inst. (Boston) Lamont Geological Observatory - New York Rosenstiel school of Marine & Atmosphere Sciences - Miami Texas A&M University administered The Ocean Drilling Program

43. SCRIPPS

44. Woods Hole

45. Lamont

46. The expansion of oceanography German U-boat led to the invention of the echo sounder to detect submarines WW2_military performed and supported many studies on transmission of sound in the ocean waves, currents, and ocean- floor topography. After WW2 U.S. government established a Sea Grant program to fund ocean research

47. Large-scale and international oceanographic research The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was the 1st large-scale cooperative effort in academic ocean research The Glomar Challenger began 1st leg of deep sea drilling The deep sea drilling project became the ocean drilling program (ODP) The ODP drill ship JOIDES Resolution, which is a lot larger than the Glomar Challenger, conducted its first scientific cruise and the JOIDES program continues today.

48. The history behind plate tectonic theory In 1915, Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift. He conceived of a single ancient landmass called Pangaea that began to break 180 million years ago. Fredrick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided evidence for sea floor spreading in 1963 They mapped magnetic patterns of the ocean floor, which showed parallel bands of similarly magnetized reaches on either side of oceanic mountain ranges. Which were records of changes in Earth’s magnetic field over time

49. Humans invade the deep ocean Increased pressure on body cavities and gases dissolved in body tissues limits duration of dives. Decompressing is necessary at greater depths because rapid ascending turns dissolved gases in tissues into nitrogen. These nitrogen bubbles can stop blood flow. This is know as the bends and is extremely painful illness which can be fatal. To protect oneself, a strict decompression schedule which includes stopping at different depths Jim suit allows a person to repair machinery at the ocean floor at surface pressure

50. Submersibles William Beebe- descended to a depth of 923 meters off Bermuda in a tethered bathysphere to observe deep-sea life. Jacques Piccard- designed untethered vessel Trieste - 1960 Alvin, Sea Cliff- 2 most widely used submersibles Japan’s Shinkai- to study microbes in the deep sea